STRIAL  WORK 
FOR  GIRLS 


A.  E.  PICKARD 

AiND 

MARIE'  C.  HENEGREN 


ELEMEKIARY  INDUSTRIAL  SERIES 


GFT  OF 


AGRIC.  DEPTi  £>  >j(*^£»i>tc 

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INDUSTRIAL  WORK 
FOR  GIRLS 


BY 


A.  E.  PICKARD 

President,  Collegiate  Institute,  Minneapolis;  formerly  Superintendent 

of  Associated  Schools,  Cokato,  Minnesota;  author  of  "Rural 

Education",  "Industrial  Booklets"  and 

"Industrial  Work  for  Boys" 


AND 


MARIE  C.  HENEGREN 

Instructor  in  Home  Economics,  Minneapolis  Public  Schools;  formerly 

Director  of  Home  Economics,  Associated  Schools, 

Cokato,  Minnesota 


ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL^SJERIpS      ,a    ,, 


WEBB  PUBLISHING  COMPANY 

ST.  PAUL,  MINN. 
1916 


GIFT 


COPYRIGHT,  1916 

BY 

WEBB  PUBLISHING  COMPANY 

ALL  RIGHTS  RESERVED 
W-l 


AGR1C,  DEPTi 


PREFACE 

Until  recently  the  average  school  has  provided  very  little 
industrial  work  for  girls.  Even  yet  this  important  phase 
of  education  is  confined  largely  to  cooking  and  sewing,  of 
some  of.  which  the  educational  value  is  questionable.  It 
is  true  that  the  exercises  in  these  subjects  can  be  made  very 
practical.  Too  often  they  are  unrelated  and  poorly  exe- 
cuted. The  work  is  not  taught;  it  is  just  done.  In  some 
instances,  these  conditions  have  brought  criticism  upon  the 
entire  industrial  movement. 

The  industrial  course  of  study  should  be  as  carefully 
planned  from  the  beginning  classes  as  the  academic  work 
and,  to  be  most  effective,  must  be  correlated  with  it;  that 
is,  definite  instruction  must  precede  or  follow  the  industrial 
exercise  if  the  student  is  to  get  anything  more  than  mechan- 
ical training.  From  this  standpoint,  the  paper  weaving, 
the  yarn  weaving  and  the  other  weaving  of  the  primary 
classes  become  important  on  account  of  the  instruction 
given  in  the  manufacture  of  these  products  and  of  the  infor- 
mation gained  about  these  important  industries.  The  same 
is  true  of  the  clay  modeling,  basketry  and  other  elementary 
industrial  work.  Many  of  the  exercises  may  have  little 
or  no  practical  value,  but  they  should  have  much  educa- 
tional value  if  properly  taught.  For  this  reason,  a  course 
of  study  with  but  a  smattering  of  cookiu^\"aiid. '"sewing  in 
the  upper  classes,  and  with  no  defimte,  plan,,, is  entirely 
inadequate;  the  student  has  no  foundation  J'c-r  the  work; 
and  fails  to  see  the  relation  between  it  and  her  other  studies. 

Practically  all  the  exercises  suggested  in  this  little  book 
have  been  successfully  done  in  several  rural  associated 
schools,  as  well  as  in  the  grades  and  the  teachers'  training 

5 

445064 


6  INDUSTRIAL  WORK  FOR  GIRLS. 

department  at  tjie  central  school  under  the  supervision  of 
the  authors.  Some  of  the  most  successful  teachers  were 
those  who  had  but  little  previous  preparation  for  this  kind 
of  work  but  who  became  interested  and  learned  the  exer- 
cises with  the  students. 

The  teacher  must  be  alive  to  the  situation,  as  upon  her, 
almost  entirely,  will  depend  the  success  of  the  work.  Ref- 
erence books  and  bulletins  should  be  provided.  The  latter 
may  be  obtained  free  from  the  Federal  and  state  depart- 
ments of  agriculture,  and  a  few  good  industrial  books  should 
be  purchased  each  year  with  the  library  supplies.  The 
amount  of  time  given  to  industrial  work  must  depend  upon 
local  conditions,  but  some  can  be  correlated  with  geography 
and  other  subjects,  as  already  suggested.  Several  grades 
should  be  grouped  together,  and  the  two  or  three  industrial 
classes  should  be  conducted  at  the  same  time,  once  or  twice 
a  week,  during  the  general  period.  An  extended  discus- 
sion of  the  industrial  course  and  the  management  of  the 
classes  is  given  in  Pickard's  "Rural  Education."  Teachers 
who  are  not  familiar  with  the  "Division  Plan"  of  con- 
ducting the  classes  should  use  that  book  as  a  reference. 

While  parts  of  Chapter  I  are  extended  primarily  for  the 
teacher,  it  is  suggested  that  such  parts  as  pertain  to  the 
purpose  of  industrial  work,  materials  used  and  other  phases 
that  will  be  helpful  should  be  discussed  as  class  work.  These 
,  may  pre.cerle,,  or.  be  done  in  connection  with,  the  regular 


:  ,;  The  -authors  acknowledge  the  help  received  in  the  prep- 
aration -of  this  :b'o6k  .from  standard  references  on  industrial 
work  and  from  government  bulletins.  Thanks  are  also 
extended  to  friends  who  have  read  parts  of  the  manuscript 
and  offered  valuable  suggestions.  THE  AUTHORS. 

October,  1916. 


CONTENTS 


Chapter  Page 

I     Course  and  Equipment 9 

Purpose  of  Industrial  Work,  Preliminary  Industrial 
Work,  Second  and  Third  Division  Work. 

H    General  Industrial  Work 19 

School  Exercises  in  Weaving,  Paper  Folding  and  Con- 
struction, Raffia  and  Rattan  Work,  Modeling. 

III  Sewing  in  the  Rural  School 33 

Equipment,  Classification  of  Stitches,  School  Exer- 
cises, Home  Projects. 

IV  Principles  of  Home  Science 67 

Food  Defined,  Food  Principles,  Preservation  of  Food, 
Planning  Menus,  Purpose  and  Principles  of  Cooking, 
Bread  Making,  Cake  Making,  Pie  Making,  Salads, 
Beverages,  Experiments. 

V    The  Hot  Lunch "...  .97 

Equipment,  General  Directions,  Sauces  and  Thick- 
ening for  Cream  Soups,  Suggestive  Dishes,  Recipes. 

VI    Industrial  Club  Work 119 

Tomato  Contest,  Home  Canning,  Bread  Baking 
Contest. 

VII    Home  Credit  Exercises 128 

The  Flower  Garden,  House  Plants,  Bird  Study,  Bed 
Making,  Preparing  a  Meal,  Laying  the  Table,  Serv- 
ing Meals,  Clearing  Dining  Table  and  Washing 
Dishes,  Fly  Control,  Planning  the  Home,  Ventilation, 
Savings  Banks,  Home  Accounts,  Industrial  Exhibit, 

7 


Industrial  Work  for  Girls 


CHAPTER  I 
COURSE  AND  EQUIPMENT 

Our  grandmothers  learned  the  science  of  cooking  and 
the  art  of  home  making  from  their  mothers.  In  fact,  most 
of  their  education  was  obtained  at  home,  as  they  did  not 
have  the  advantages  of  school  that  we  enjoy.  Now  that 
young  folk  spend  much  of  their  time  in  school  there  is  not 
the  opportunity  to  learn  as  much  in  the  home  as  formerly. 
For  other  reasons,  also,  it  is  usually  impossible  for  girls 
to  get  in  the  home  the  training  that  will  make  them  efficient 
and  businesslike  housekeepers. 

It  has  been  found  possible  to  have  the  school  co-operate 
with  the  home  in  this  training.  Many  successful  projects 
have  been  carried  out  in  this  manner  in  various  parts  of  the 
country  during  the  last  few  years.  Much  of  the  work  can 
be  done  at  school  as  regular  class  exercises.  Some  of  it 
can  be  better  done  at  home  as  individual  projects  for  which 
the  school  should  give  "home  credit."  The  contest  work 
with  tomatoes,  canning,  bread  baking,  etc.,  is  especially  val- 
uable and  well  worth  while  for  any  girl.  It  is  not  only  ex- 
ceedingly healthful  exercise,  but  it  will  give  a  training  in 
managing,  marketing  and  accounting  that  can  hardly  be 
obtained  in  any  other  way.  Get  the  girls  of  your  school  to 
organize  for  some  of  the  home  projects  and  contest  work 
suggested  in  this  book  and,  if  you  have  never  done  any  of  this 


. 

1  r  *l\  l$$US  TRIAL  WORK  FOR  GIRLS 

work  before,  you  will  be  delightfully  surprised  with  the  results. 
Many  girls  have  not  only  earned  all  the  money  they  needed, 
but  have  started  savings  bank  accounts  with  the  proceeds. 

PURPOSE  OF  INDUSTRIAL  WORK 

Since  the  purpose  of  industrial  work  is  to  give  a  broader 
education  by  training  the  hand  as  well  as  the  head,  and  to 
give  an  opportunity  to  get  familiar  with  some  of  the  great 
industries,  it  is  plain  that  one  kind  of  industrial  work,  such 
as  sewing,  is  not  enough.  It  has  been  observed,  also,  that 
students  who  have  done  the  elementary  industrial  work 
of  the  lower  grades  are  much  better  qualified  for  this  kind 
of  work  in  the  upper  grades.  Students  who  are  taking  the 
work  for  the  first  time  should,  therefore,  do  some  work  in 
weaving,  both  paper  and  rug,  as  well  as  basketry  and  other 
work  before  attempting  the  work  in  home  economics  proper. 

A  noted  educator  says  this  of  industrial  work:  "As 
far  as  it  neglects  industry,  the  school  falls  short  of  its  pur- 
pose. Industry  is  among  the  departments  of  civilization 
about  which  everybody  should  know  something.  Social 
efficiency,  too,  depends  upon  knowledge;  for  without  some 
acquaintance  with  industrial  affairs  even  those  who  are 
engaged  in  other  pursuits  are  handicapped.  They  cannot 
intelligently  co-operate  with  work  which  they  know  nothing 
about." 

Industrial  training  in  the  elementary  schools  has  been 
too  much  of  the  hit-or-miss  kind.  There  has  been  no  stand- 
ard course  of  study  to  follow,  and  resourceful  teachers 
have  been  able  to  conduct  the'  work  only  on  account  of 
their  own  training  and  interest  in  it.  Only  two  extremes 
could  be  expected  under  such  circumstances — talking  about 
industrial  work  without  doing  it,  and  making  unrelated 
articles  without  instruction. 


COURSE  AND  EQUIPMENT 


11 


The  time  given  to  industrial  work  must  depend  upon 
local  circumstances.  At  least  two  hours  a  week  should  be 
devoted  to  it,  and  more  if  possible.  The  school  should  be 
divided  into  either  two  or  three  divisions  for  this  work. 
The  "Division  Plan,"  discussed  at  length  in  "Rural  Edu- 
cation," divides  the  usual  eight  grades  into  the  First 
Division,  the  Second  Division,  and  the  Third  Division. 
The  First  Division  includes  the  first  three  grades;  the 
Second  Division  includes  grades  four  to  six  inclusive;  and 
the  Third  Division  is  made  up  of  the  seventh  and  eighth 
grades.  Probably  a  better  plan  is  to  have  but  seven 
grades  in  the  rural  school  curriculum.  In  that  event,  the 
Second  Division  will  include  only  the  fourth  and  fifth 
grades,  and  the  Third  Division,  the  sixth  and  seventh. 

The  supplies  needed  will  naturally  depend  upon  the 
size  of  the  school  and  the  time  given  to  industrial  work. 
From  five  to  fifteen  dollars'  worth  will  be  enough  for  the 
general  industrial  work.  The  industrial  and  sewing  ma- 


Figure  1 .     Preparing  and  assorting  material  for  industrial  work  in 
rural  associated  schools. 


12  INDUSTRIAL  WORK  FOR  GIRLS 

terials  of  the  advanced  division  should  be  paid  for  by  the 
students.  A  suggestive  list  of  materials  with  prices  is 
given.  They  may  be  purchased  from  a  school  supply  house. 

For  the  First  Division,  paper  weaving  materials  are 
needed.  These  may  be  purchased  in  packages  in  various 
sizes,  with  slits  one  fourth,  one  third,  and  one  half  inch  wide, 
at  about  a  cent  for  each  mat.  All  the  standard  colors  may 
be  obtained.  Colored  sheets  should  be  purchased  and 
strips  cut  with  the  scissors  for  more  advanced  weaving  after 
the  ready-made  mats  have  been  put  together.  Papers 
for  folding  and  cutting  may  be  purchased  at  fifteen  to 
twenty  cents  a  hundred  squares,  usually  four  by  four  inches. 

Looms  may  be  made  or  purchased.  Hammock  looms 
are  easily  made  by  cutting  heavy  cardboard  to  the  de- 
sired size,  rounding  the  ends,  and  cutting  notches  in  them 
for  the  fastening  of  the  warp.  These  are  inexpensive  and 
are  just  as  good  as  those  that  are  purchased.  Looms  for 
rug  weaving  may  easily  be  made  in  the  school,  if  the  stu- 
dents have  manual  training.  A  loom  that  retails  for  thirty 
cents  may  be  made  for  from  three  to  six  cents  for  the  ma- 
terial. Use  oak  one  fourth  of  an  inch  thick.  Pine  or  bass- 
wood  will  do.  The  two  endpieces  are  each  ten  inches  long 
and  one  and  one  fourth  inches  wide.  Place  the  two  end- 
pieces  together  side  to  side  and  make  a  series  of  cross 
notches  from  end  to  end  by  sawing  their  edges  a  quarter 
of  an  inch  deep  and  a  quarter  of  an  inch  apart.  In  these 
notches  the  warp  is  fastened  for  weaving.  The  ends  are 
fastened  apart  with  two  sidepieces  twelve  inches  long 
and  three  quarters  of  an  inch  wide.  These  are  fastened 
by  sawing  a  slit  in  the  ends  of  the  endpieces,  so  that 
the  sidepieces  will  just  fit  flatwise.  They  are  then  nailed 
and  glued.  Holes  are  bored  in  the  ends  for  the  heavy 
wire  to  make  the  loom  adjustable  in  width.  These  wires 


COURSE  AND  EQUIPMENT  13 

are  copper,  three  sixteenths  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and 
may  be  bought  at  any  hardware  store.  They 
should  be  cut  fourteen  inches  long  and  have  a  loop 
made  in  one  end  for  a  handle.  A  wooden  crosspiece 
similar  to  one  of  the  ends  may  be  made  to  slide  along  the 
sidepieces.  This  will  enable  one  to  make  the  loom  adjust- 
able in  length  as  well  as  in  width.  Flat  wooden  needles 
made  from  quarter-inch  basswood,  rounded  off  at  one 
end,  and  a  hole  bored  in  the  other  for  threading  the  ma- 
terial, can  be  made  very  easily,  and  they  are  better  than 
the  metal  needles  for  the  most  of  the  weaving.  These 
should  be  sandpapered  down  until  they  are  a  little  less  than 
one  eighth  of  an  inch  thick,  a  half  inch  wide  and  about 
ten  inches  long.  With  such  a  needle,  the  material  may 
be  drawn  through  the  entire  width  of  the  rug  at  one  time. 
Metal  needles  are  needed  for  finishing  the  rugs  and  for  work- 
ing patterns.  See  Figure  7. 

Rug  materials  are  few  or  numerous  as  one  desires.  Col- 
ored rags  from  home  are  as  good  as  anything  for  the  prac- 
tice work  and  cost  nothing.  They  should  be  cut  or  torn 
into  suitable  lengths  and  widths.  Roving  is  a  very  coarse 
weaving  material,  excellent  for  beginners,  and  may  be 
purchased  in  colors  at  about  seventy  cents  a  pound.  It 
should  precede  the  finer  materials.  Carpet  yarn  may  be 
obtained  at  about  sixty  cents  a  pound.  Jute  makes  cheaper 
weaving  material  at  from  twenty-five  to  thirty  cents  a  pound. 
Chenille,  plain  and  mottled,  is  good  for  pattern  work  or 
for  the  entire  rug.  It  costs  about  sixty  cents  a  pound. 
Macrame  cord  comes  in  balls,  any  color,  and  costs  about 
fifteen  cents  a  ball.  It  is  used  principally  for  hammock 
making,  but  is  rather  expensive.  For  practice,  rugs  may 
be  made  out  of  rags,  raffia,  or  even  corn  husks,  and  save 
the  expensive  materials  for  exhibit  work.  All  these  ma- 


14  INDUSTRIAL  WORK  FOR  GIRLS 

terials  are  used  for  the  woof  of  rugs  and  hammocks.  For 
the  warp  to  "thread"  the  looms,  carpet  warp  may  be  pur- 
chased in  colors  at  about  fifty  cents  a  pound.  Brass  rings 
for  hammocks  will  cost  about  two  cents  a  pair  for  the  inch 
size.  Smaller  ones  may  be  used,  if  desired.  Germantown 
yarn  is  beautiful  for  knitting  caps,  bonnets,  mittens,  leggings, 
etc.,  but  is  rather  expensive  for  rugs.  It  costs  about  fifteen 
cents  a  skein. 

Basketry  and  raffia  supplies  may  be  furnished  by  the 
school  or  purchased  by  the  students,  as  desired.  Plain 
raffia  costs  from  fifteen  to  eighteen  cents  a  pound,  and 
colored,  from  forty  to  fifty  cents.  Rattan,  or  round  reeds, 
will  cost  from  thirty-five  to  eighty-five  cents,  depending 
upon  the  size.  The  medium  sizes  are  used  most,  but  the 
teacher  should  order  by  sending  samples  of  the  sizes  de- 
sired. Flat  reed  for  napkin  rings  and  basketry  costs  about 
fifty  cents  a  pound.  Raffia  and  rattan  may  be  dyed,  if 
desired;  but  it  is  rather  hard  to  get  uniform  tints  unless 
one  has  had  practice.  The  finished  baskets  and  trays 
should  be  shellacked  as  soon  as  they  are  made. 

Clay  for  modeling  comes  in  three  forms — the  flour,  in 
bricks,  and  moist  in  barrels.  The  flour  may  be  obtained 
in  five-pound  boxes  at  five  cents  a  pound.  The  bricks  are 
usually  five  pounds  each  and  cost  the  same  as  the  flour. 
Moist  clay  is  a  little  cheaper  when  purchased  in  barrel 
lots.  Some  communities  have  near  at  hand  clay  that  is 
good  for  this  work,  and  costs  only  the  labor  of  getting  it. 

PRELIMINARY  INDUSTRIAL  WORK 

Those  pupils  who  have  not  had  the  industrial  work  of 
the  lower  grades  should  learn  the  principles  of  weaving 
some  raffia  and  rattan  work,  and  do  a  little  modeling  with 
clay.  A  few  simple  exercises  are  given,  the  material  for 


COURSE  AND  EQUIPMENT 


15 


which  should  be  furnished  by  the  school.  The  students 
should  make  the  looms,  using  paper  for  the  Germantown 
yarn  and  hammock  work,  and  wood  for  the  rugs.  Have  a 
brush  and  shellac  for  the  baskets  and  trays. 

Paper  folding  and  construction  may  precede  or  follow 
the  paper  weaving.  A  ruler,  pencil,  pair  of  scissors  and 
paste  are  needed.  Make  envelopes  and  boxes  for  seed  and 
other  collections  in  agriculture.  Other  objects  from  which 
a  selection  may  be  made  are  as  follows:  Small  basket, 
doll's  furniture,  sled,  Indian  canoe,  Puritan  cradle,  shaving 
ball  or  pad,  needlebook,  match  scratcher,  Christmas  bells, 
windmill,  May  basket,  carriage,  house,  barn,  chicken-coop, 
picture-frame,  bookmark,  fan,  Chinese  lantern,  circular 
marker,  hexagonal  box,  blotting-pad,  calendar,  valentine, 
button  box,  tent,  card  and  photograph  holders,  screen, 
flower  holder,  whisk-broom  holder  and  pocket  comb  holder. 
The  materials  for  these  are  common  manila  drawing  paper, 
oak  tag,  cover  paper  and  colored  construction  papers. 

Weaving  is  usually  be- 
gun with  paper  strips  and 
readymade  mats,  as  given 
under  materials  for  indus- 
trial work.  Paper  weaving 
may  be  followed  by  basket 
weaving  with  heavy  .fold- 
ing paper,  and  by  the 
weaving  of  bookmarks, 
pencil  trays,  mats,  boxes, 
napkin  rings,  match  safes, 
pincushions,  blotters,  cal- 
endars and  thermometer 
backs.  After  paper  weav- 

Figure  2.  Germantown  yarn  work,  showing         •  i  i        i         i  j    i 

caps,  sweaters  and  leggings.  ing,   loom  WOrk   Should   be 


16 


INDUSTRIAL  WORK  FOR  GIRLS 


given.  Rugs  of  rags,  roving,  yarn,  jute,  chenille,  raffia  and 
other  materials  are  made.  Bed  blankets  and  draperies  for 
a  doll's  house  may  be  woven.  Hammocks,  made  of  macrame 
cord  on  homemade  cardboard  looms,  may  be  hung  outside 
the  doll  house.  Doll  caps,  mittens,  and  leggings  may  be 
made  of  Germantown  yarn  on  the  loom  and  sewed  to  shape. 
See  Figure  2. 

Raffia  and  rattan  work  should  largely  be  done  in  the  in- 
termediate and  advanced  divisions.     Raffia  rugs,   napkin 


Figure  3.     Making  rattan  trays  and  baskets  on  the  school  grounds. 

rings,  picture  frames  of  cardboard  wound  in  raffia,  and  raffia 
baskets  may  be  attempted  in  the  primary  division. 

Modeling  is  always  of  interest  and  its  educational  value 
is  evident.  A  piece  of  oilcloth  or  a  square  board  should 
protect  the  desk.  When  clay  is  used  it  should  be  prepared 
the  day  before.  The  children,  of  course,  must  be  able  to 
wash  their  hands  after  the  work.  Encourage  outside  work 
and  ask  the  children  to  bring  their  products  to  school  to 
show  the  others.  Modeling  is  especially  valuable  in  train- 
ing both  hands  at  the  same  time.  Begin  with  forms  from 
life,  as  animals  and  plants,  rather  than  with  geometrical 


COURSE  AND  EQUIPMENT  17 

forms.  Later  the  latter  should  be  given,  and  the  ball, 
apple,  peach,  pear,  orange,  banana  and  other  similar  objects 
modeled.  A  bird's  nest  and  eggs,  marbles,  clay  baskets, 
beads  and  ornamental  vases  are  some  of  the  popular  pieces. 
It  is  well  to  have  in  mind  the  following  general  divisions  of 
the  subject:  1.  Modeling  from  objects  present  at  the 
time.  2.  Modeling  from  memory.  3.  Modeling  from 
imagination.  4.  Design  in  modeling.  Fruit  modeling 
may  be  shaded  with  water  colors  and,  when  dry,  given 
a  coat  of  shellac  which  gives  a  very  natural  effect,  if  well 
done.  Other  objects  may  be  colored  in  a  similar  manner. 

SECOND  AND  THIRD  DIVISION  WORK 

The  general  industrial  work  of  these  divisions  should  be 
raffia  and  rattan  weaving,  basketry  and,  if  desired,  bead- 
work.  The  objects  made  may  be  varied.  If  sewing  is 
given  in  these  divisions,  there  will  not  be  much  time  left. 
A  little  basketry,  however,  should  be  given  sometime 
during  the  course.  Napkin  rings  of  rattan  and  flat  reed, 
baskets  of  raffia  and  rattan,  collar  boxes  of  rattan  wound 
and  fastened  with  raffia,  serving  trays  of  rattan  with  a 
wooden  bottom,  and  waste  baskets  of  heavy  rattan,  are  all 
useful  and  practical  lessons.  The  rattan  work  should  be 
given  a  coat  of  shellac  as  soon  as  finished.  It  may  be  fin- 
ished in  colors  or  natural. 

Reference  books  are  necessary  for  the  best  results  in 
industrial  work.  It  is  impossible  to  give  directions  for 
making  of  many  of  the  articles  suggested  here,  as  space  will 
not  permit.  The  authors  have  found  the  following  list  of 
books  almost  indispensable:  Paper  Sloyd  for  Primary 
Grades,  by  Rich;  Industrial  Work  for  Public  Schools,  by 
Holton  and  Rollins;  Hand-Loom  Weaving  by  Todd;  Card- 
board Construction,  by  Trybom;  Hand  Work,  by  Hoxie; 


18  INDUSTRIAL  WORK  FOR  GIRLS 

Raffia  and  Reed  Weaving,  by  Knapp;  Clay  Modeling,  by 
Holland;  and  How  to  Make  Baskets,  by  White.  Bulle- 
tins on  industrial  work  may  be  obtained  free  from  many  of 
the  agricultural  colleges. 

Industrial  work  and  geography  should  be  correlated  to 
the  extent  that  the  students  should  know  where  all  the 
materials  used  come  from  and  how  they  are  used  in  the 
industries.  Raffia  is  a  light  yellow  material  that  is  shred- 
ded off  from  the  bark  of  a  certain  palm  tree.  Most  of  ours 
comes  from  the  island  of  Madagascar.  On  account  of  its 
pliability  and  toughness,  raffia  is  much  used  for  industrial 
work  and  also  for  rope  making  in  the  industries.  Rattan 
is  a  kind  of  a  palm  that  grows  in  the  East  Indies.  It  is 
peculiar  in  that  it  sometimes  reaches  one  thousand  feet 
in  length,  and  is  supported  by  neighboring  trees.  It  grows 
in  various  sizes,  but  is  seldom  more  than  an  inch  in  diam- 
eter. There  are  very  few  branches,  sometimes  none  for 
two  or  three  hundred  feet.  The  different  species  are  very 
useful  in  their  native  countries  for  plaited  work,  rope  mak- 
ing, etc.  Rattan  is  twisted  into  ropes  and  used  for  pur- 
poses requiring  great  strength.  In  this  country  it  is  used 
for  basketry,  rustic  furniture  making,  etc.  Jute  is  made 
from  the  inner  bark  of  a  tall  annual  plant  native  to  the 
East  Indies,  but  now  grown  in  several  countries  for  com- 
mercial purposes.  The  fiber  is  used  for  making  carpet, 
canvas  and  rope. 

Directions  for  making  a  few  forms  of  industrial  work  are 
given  for  those  who  have  no  other  books,  but  as  many 
reference  books  on  industrial  work  as  the  school  can  afford 
should  be  in  the  library. 


CHAPTER  II 

GENERAL  INDUSTRIAL  WORK 

Students  desiring  to  do  industrial  work  out  of  school  for 
"home  credit"  should  consult  with  the  teacher  regarding 
objects  to  be  made.  Try  to  develop  originality.  The  fol- 
lowing are  school  exercises: 

1— Single  Paper  Weaving 

Materials:  Manila  drawing  paper  for  practice.  Later, 
use  colored  papers  for  a  variety. 

Directions:  Use  a  square  of  any  desired  size  from  four 
to  eight  inches.  Fold  the  bottom  over  to  the  top.  With 


Figure  4.     Paper  weaving.     Note  different  designs. 

a  ruler  and  pencil  make  lines  one  half  inch  apart,  beginning 
one  inch  from  the  left  side  and  ending  one  inch  from  the 
right  side.  The  lines  should  run  to  the  folded  edge  of  the 
paper,  but  end  just  one  inch  from  the  upper  edge.  With 
the  scissors  cut  along  the  lines.  Open  the  paper.  It  will 
then  be  cut  into  slits  one  half  inch  apart.  Cut  another 
piece  of  paper  into  strips  one  half  inch  wide  and  as  long  as 
the  square  just  used.  Weave  the  first  strip  over  one  and 
under  the  next  strip  in  the  square.  Weave  the  second  strip 

19 


20  INDUSTRIAL  WORK  FOR  GIRLS 

in  the  same  way  except  that  you  weave  under  where  you 
wove  over  in  the  first  strip.  Continue  until  all  the  strips 
are  woven.  Other  weaving  may  be  done,  using  strips  of  any 
desired  width  and  color,  and  working  out  various  designs 
in  the  square.  As  stated  elsewhere,  these  squares  may  be 
purchased  all  ready  for  weaving,  if  desired;  but  it  is  cheaper 
to  make  them,  and  the  practice  in  ruling  and  cutting  is 
also  desirable.  See  Figure  4. 

2— Paper  Box 

Materials:  Drawing  paper,  ruler,  pencil,  scissors  and 
paste. 

Directions:  Draw  on  a  piece  of  paper  a  square  just 
double  the  size  you  want  your  box  to  be.  Fold  over  the 
lower  edge  on  the  upper,  then  the  lower  edge  back  on  the 
crease,  then  the  upper  edge  forward  on  the  crease.  Turn 
the  paper  half  around  and  do  the  same.  Open.  You 
will  now  have  sixteen  squares.  With  the  scissors  cut 
the  lower  edge  of  the  two  top  corner  squares  and  the 
upper  edge  of  the  two  bottom  corner  squares.  Fold,  so 
that  the  four  middle  squares  form  the  bottom  of 
the  box.  Paste  the  corner  squares  on  the  inside  of  the  box. 
Another  box  may  be  made  in  the  same  manner  and  used  as 
a  cover.  Heavier  paper  may  be  used  for  boxes  to  store 
seeds  and  other  agricultural  products. 

3— Paper  Basket 

Materials:     Same  as  for  the  paper  box. 

Directions:  If  a  square  basket  is  desired,  it  may  be 
made  the  same  as  the  box.  Then  paste  the  handle  to  it, 
letting  the  ends  extend  on  the  inside  of  the  basket.  A 
better  form  is  an  oblong  about  six  by  eight  inches.  Rule 
and  cut  a  paper  this  size,  being  careful  to  get  it  exact.  Fold 
it  into  two-inch  squares,  as  directed  for  the  box.  Turn 


GENERAL  INDUSTRIAL  WORK.  21 

the  paper  with  the  long  side  up  and  down.  Cut  the  two 
sides  of  the  upper  middle  square.  Do  the  same  for  the  lower 
middle  square.  Fold  the  corner  squares  over  the  middle 
squares  and  paste.  Cut  the  handle  and  paste  on  the  inside 
in  the  middle  of  the  basket.  After  practicing  with  drawing 
paper,  heavier  material  may  be  used  for  more  permanent 
baskets.  Two  colors  may  be  used,  if  desired. 

4— Paper  Table 

Materials:     Heavy   folding   paper,    scissors   and   paste. 

Directions:  Cut  a  square  twice  the  dimensions  desired 
for  the  table.  Fold  it  into  sixteen  squares,  as  directed  in 
making  the  box.  Cut  along  the  bottom  of  the  two  upper 
corner  squares  and  along  the  top  of  the  lower  corner  squares. 
Fold  the  ends  over  the  corner  squares  and  paste  securely. 
The  bottom  of  the  box  just  made  is  the  top  of  the  table. 
Cut  out  an  oblong  from  each  side  beginning  one  half  inch 
from  the  corners,  making  it  about  three  inches  long,  to 
form  the  legs. 

5 — Paper  Chair 

Materials:    Same  as  for  the  paper  table. 

Directions:  Cut  a  square  having  about  three  fourths 
as  many  inches  on  a  side  as  you  used  for  the  table.  Fold 
this  into  nine  squares,  as  directed  in  the  first  numbers.  Cut 
along  the  top  of  the  lower  corner  squares.  Cut  along  both 
sides  of  the  upper  middle  square.  Fold  the  upper  middle 
square  toward  you.  This  forms  the  back.  Now  fold 
one  of  the  upper  corner  squares  over  the  other  and  fold 
the  rest  of  the  squares  to  form  a  cube.  Paste  securely. 
Strengthen  the  back  by  pasting  a  paper  of  the  same  size 
over  it.  At  the  bottom  cut  out  oblongs  from  each  side 
to  form  the  legs,  as  directed  for  the  table.  The  back  may 
be  ornamented  or  left  square. 


22  INDUSTRIAL  WORK  FOR  GIRLS 

6 — Paper  Lantern 

Materials:     Plain  or  colored  folding  paper,  black  paper, 
scissors  and  paste. 

Directions:  Paste  half-inch  bands  of  dark  or  black  paper 
across  the  top  and  bottom  of  a  six  inch  square  of  colored 
paper  or  paper  tinted  with  water  colors.  Wall  paper  makes 
pretty  lanterns.  Fold  the  bottom  over  on  the  top  edge. 
Cut  half  inch  slits  from  the  crease  to  the  black  paper.  Form 
circles  with  the  black  edges,  making  the  top  and  bottom 
of  the  lantern.  Paste  securely.  Cut  the  handle  of  the  same 
material  as  the  circular  strips,  making  it  the  same  width 
and  six  inches  long.  Paste  it  to  the  lantern,  and  hang  where 
the  lantern  will  show  to  advantage.  A  cardboard  bottom 
may  be  inserted,  and  a  small  candle  fastened  to  it. 
•  7— Jack-o'-lantern 

Materials:  Drawing  paper  and  yellow  construction 
paper,  or  tinted  drawing  paper. 

Directions:  Draw  an  oval  the  shape  of  a  pumpkin 
about  three  by  three  and  one  half  inches,  leaving  a  short 
stem  at  the  top.  Cut  out.  With  this,  trace  another  on 
yellow  or  tinted  paper.  Cut  this  out.  Then  cut  holes  for 
the  eyes,  nose,  and  mouth,  and  paste  the  colored  paper  over 
the  other.  Black  disks  of  paper  may  be  pasted  on  the 
pupils  of  the  eyes,  and  triangles  for  the  teeth.  These  may 
be  used  for  invitations  or  hung  up  for  decorations. 
8 — Halloween  Fence 

Materials:  Manila  drawing  paper  and  yellow  tinted 
paper. 

Directions:  Using  a  piece  of  drawing  paper  eight  inches 
long  and  two  and  one  half  inches  wide,  cut  out  quarter- 
inch  oblongs  three  and  one  half  inches  long,  leaving  a  quarter 
of  an  inch  at  each  end  to  represent  the  post.  Cut  out  five 
of  these,  leaving  four  strips  of  paper  for  the  boards.  Do 


GENERAL  INDUSTRIAL  WORK  23 

likewise  on  the  other  half  of  the  paper.  This  will  make  three 
posts  and  four  boards  between  each, 
with  the  posts  projecting  above  and 
below.  Paste  the  fence  to  a  sheet  of 
colored  mounting  paper.  On  the  top  of 
each  post  paste  a  small  Jack-o'-lantern 
Figure  5.  Halloween  about  one  and  a  quarter  inches  in  diam- 

fence,    paper  cutting        AfAr        0™    TTin-nro    ^ 
and  mounting.  eter-       ^66   *  IgUre   O. 

9— Christmas  Bell 

Materials:  Red  construction  paper  about  the  weight 
of  light  oak  tag,  pencil  and  scissors. 

Directions:  On  a  five-inch  square  draw  or  trace  a  bell, 
having  the  widest  part  at  the  bottom,  the  width  of  the  square. 
A  rounded  projection  in  the  middle  at  the  bottom  represents 
tongue,  or  clapper,  of  the  bell.  Cut  along  the  outline. 
A  small  hole  punched  in  the  top  of  the  dome  will  enable 
one  to  hang  the  bell.  It  may  be  used  to  send  an  invitation 
to  a  school  entertainment. 

10 — Christmas  Stocking 

Materials:     Same  as  for  number  seven. 

Directions:  On  a  piece  of  red  construction  paper  draw 
or  trace  a  stocking  about  eight  inches  long  and  three  inches 
wide  at  the  top,  and  foot.  Cut  along  the  line.  This  may 
also  be  used  to  send  an  invitation  or  to  hang  up  for  Christ- 
mas decoration. 

11— Santa  Claus 

Materials:     Red  cardboard,  cotton  and  metal  fasteners. 

Directions:  Trace  the  upper  part  of  the  body  down  as 
far  as  the  waist  line,  making  this  part  about  five  inches 
from  the  top  of  the  head  to  the  waist,  and  about  three 
inches  across  at  the  waist.  Cut  out.  Cut  the  arms  and 
fasten  with  a  brass  fastener,  one  on  each  side  of  the  body. 
Cut  out  the  lower  limbs  about  four  inches  long  and  fasten 


24 


INDUSTRIAL  WORK  FOR  GIRLS 


on  the  under  side  of  the  waist  line.  Both 
the  arms  and  legs  will  then  be  movable. 
Paste  cotton  on  the  head  for  hair  and 
whiskers;  on  the  hands  for  fur  mittens;  on 
the  waist  line  of  the  coat  and  above  the 
ankles  for  the  tops  of  the  leggings.  This 
makes  an  interesting  Christmas  decoration. 

12  —  Roving  or  Yarn  Rug 

Materials:  Loom  and  needle,  carpet 
yarn  or  string  for  warp,  and  rags,  yarn, 
chenille,  raffia  or  roving,  for  the  woof. 

Directions:  Thread  the  warj5  back 
and  forth  through  the  notches  at  the  ends 
simtaciaus  of  the  loom.  See  that  it  is  as  tight  as 
possible.  Weave  the  woof  over  one  strand 
of  the  warp  and  under  the  next,  across  the  rug.  Return, 
going  under  the  strand  you  went  over  before,  and  over  the 
next,  and  so  on.  If  a  long  wooden  needle  is  used,  it  may  be 


Figure  7.     Raffia  bag,  yarn  mat  on  a  homemade  loom  and  a  raffia  mat. 


GENERAL  INDUSTRIAL  WORK 


25 


Figure  8.     Roving  and  chenille  rugs. 

drawn  across  the  entire  mat  at  once,  thus  saving  time. 
Colored  borders  and  stripes  may  be  used  or  designs  worked 
in.  The  loom  can  be  adjusted  to  any  size  of  material. 
In  a  previous  paragraph,  see  directions  for  making  a  home- 
made loom.  Keep  the  woof  tight  by  packing  it  with  the 
needle  and  finger.  When  finished,  remove  and  bind  the 
ends  of  the  warp  with  carpet  yarn,  or  make  a  fringe.  Raffia 
may  be  used  instead  of  roving  or  yarn.  See  Figures  7  and  8. 

'13 — Hammock 

Materials:  Cardboard  loom,  macrame  cord  in  two 
colors,  a  large  darning  needle  and  two  brass  rings  about 
three  fourths  of  an  inch  in  diameter. 

Directions:  Fasten  the  warp  into  the  rings  which  are 
attached  to  one  side  of  the  loom,  and  wind  it  around  the 
ends  of  the  loom  over  the  notches,  or  through  the  holes, 
if  those  are  used  instead  of  notches.  Any  number  of  warp 


26  INDUSTRIAL  WORK  FOR  GIRLS 


Figure  9.     A  hammock  made  of  macrame  cord. 
i 

strands  may  be  used,  from  sixteen  to  twenty  being  common. 
After  the  warp  is  stretched  tightly,  begin  the  weaving  with 
the  same  material  used  for  warp.  The  woof  strands  should 
be  about  half  as  long  as  the  distance  between  the  two  rings 
after  the  hammock  is  removed.  Colored  stripes  may  alter- 
nate or  borders  may  be  used.  When  finished,  remove  from 
the  loom  and  make  a  fringe. 

14 — Reed  Napkin  Ring 

Materials:  Wooden  loom,  number  three  or  four  rattan, 
number  one  rattan,  flat  reed  and  a  knife. 

Directions:  Make  a  small  wooden  base  of  basswood  or 
pine  two  and  one  half  inches  square  and  a  quarter  of  an 
inch  thick.  On  this  base  draw  a  circle  two  inches  hi  diam- 
eter. With  the  ruler  find  the  perpendicular  diameter,  and 
place  a  dot  at  each  end  of  it  on  the  circle.  Do  the  same  for 
the  horizontal  diameter.  Again  divide  the  space  between 
the  dots  into  three  equal  parts,  until  you  have  twelve  dots 
on  the  circle,  the  same  distance  apart.  With  a  brace  and 
bit,  or  gimlet,  bore  holes  through  the  base  at  the  dots. 
These  should  be  a  trifle  larger  than  the  size  of  rattan  you 
want  to  use  for  the  frame  of  the  napkin  ring.  Cut  twelve 


GENERAL  INDUSTRIAL  WORK  27 

pieces  of  rattan  about  the  size  of  a  match  and  one  and  one 
half  inches  long.  Place  these  firmly  in  the  holes  of  the  base. 
Using  rattan  a  size  smaller  as  a  weaver,  weave  four  times 
around  the  base,  going  inside  of  one  upright  and  outside  the 
next.  The  second  time  around  weave  opposite  to  the  first 
time,  and  alternate  each  time.  The  weaver  is  moistened  so 
it  is  tough  and  pliable.  Pull  it  tight,  and  press  firmly  against 
the  base.  Next  use  flat  reed  for  two  layers  and  weave  in 
the  same  way.  Then  weave  four  rounds  more  of  the  same 
size  rattan  as  on  the  bottom.  Fasten  the  last  end  securely. 
Pull  the  ring  off  the  base,  being  careful  not  to  leave  any  of 
the  uprights  in  it.  With  number  one  rattan,  bind  the  edge 
together  firmly  by  fastening  one  end  around  the  top  of  an 
upright,  crossing  to  the  next  lower  end,  twisting  around  this 
end,  crossing  to  the  next  upper  end,  and  so  on,  until  you 
have  gone  around  the  ring  twice  and  finished  binding  each 
upright.  Cut  off  the  ends  of  the  uprights.  Your  napkin 
ring  should  be  strong  and  somewhat  resemble  a  snare  drum 
on  the  outside.  Be  sure  to  keep  the  material  moist  while 
working.  See  Figure  10. 

15— Raffia  Picture  Frame 

Materials:     Cardboard  and  raffia. 

Directions:  Cut  out  a  circle  from  the  cardboard.  It 
may  be  any  desired  size,  but  about  six  inches  in  diameter 
is  common.  Cut  another  circle  in  the  center,  leaving  a  hole 
in  the  middle  about  two  and  one  half  inches  in  diameter. 
Select  board,  smooth  raffia.  Moisten  it,  and  wind  carefully 
around  from  center  to  outside.  When  finished,  sew  a  braid 
of  raffia  around  the  outer  edge,  making  a  loop  at  the  top  by 
means  of  which  to  hang  it  up.  Put  in  the  picture.  Oval 
or  square  shape  frames  may  be  made  according  to  the  in- 
dividual preference. 


INDUSTRIAL  WORK  FOR  GIRLS 


16— Rattan  Mat 

Materials:  Number  three  rattan  for  spokes,  raffia  and 
number  one  rattan  for  weaving. 

Directions:  For  a  six-inch  mat  you  will  need  to  use 
pieces  of  rattan  fourteen  inches  long  in  order  to  make  the 
border  and  fasten  the  ends.  Cut  eight  pieces  of  the  number 
three  rattan  fourteen  inches  and  one  piece  eight  inches,  as 
it  is  easier  to  weave  with  an  odd  number  of  spokes.  Take 
four  of  the  long  spokes  and  cut  a  slit  one  half  inch  long 
exactly  in  the  middle  of  each.  Draw  the  other  four  long 
spokes  half  way  through  these  slits,  making  a  cross.  Put 
in  the  short  spoke  until  the  end  shows  on  the  other  side. 
With  a  needle  weave  raffia  over  one  and  under  the  next  spoke, 
starting  in  the  center,  until  you  have  woven  a  little  circular 
mat  about  an  inch  all  the  way  round  from  the  center,  or  two 
inches  in  diameter.  You  will  thus  make  a  firmer  middle 
than  you  can  usually  get  with  the  rattan.  Now  use  number 


Figure  10.     Rattan  and  raffia  work,  showing  serving  tray,  baskets,  collar  box, 
mats  and  napkin  rings. 


GENERAL  INDUSTRIAL  WORK  29 

one  rattan  for  the  weaver  in  the  same  way,  and  keep  the 
seventeen  spokes  the  same  distance  apart,  until  you  have 
a  mat  about  six  inches  in  diameter.  Now  sharpen  the  ends 
of  the  spokes,  moisten  them  so  they  will  bend  easily,  and 
pass  each  one  in  front  of  the  next  spoke  to  the  left,  and  push 
it  down  beside  the  second  spoke,  thus  making  a  loop  about 
two  inches  across  and  an  inch  high.  Do  this  with  each 
spoke  until  the  border  is  finished.  While  the  mat  is  moist, 
see  that  it  lies  perfectly  flat.  When  dry,  put  on  a  coat  of 
clear  or  colored  shellac.  See  Figure  10. 

17— Rattan  Basket 

Materials:  Number  four  and  number  two  rattan,  and 
plain  raffia. 

Directions:  Cut  eight  pieces  of  number  four  rattan  from 
eighteen  to  twenty-four  inches  long,  depending  upon  the 
height  of  the  basket  desired,  twenty  inches  being  a  good 
length.  Cut  one  piece  an  inch  or  two  more  than  half  this 
length  for  the  odd  spoke.  Proceed  as  for  the  mat  in  number 
16,  using  the  raffia  center,  until  you  have  a  four-inch  bottom. 
Moisten  the  spokes,  and  turn  each  one  up  as  you  pass  the 
weaver  around  it.  Keep  the  weaving  pressed  down  firmly, 
the  spokes  the  same  distance  apart,  and  be  very  careful  in 
shaping  your  basket,  that  it  may  be  even  all  the  way  around. 
When  through  weaving,  fasten  the  end  securely.  Make  a 
border  with  the  spokes  as  for  the  mat,  only  pass  the  spoke 
to  the  left  in  front  of  two  spokes  instead  of  one,  and  push  it 
down  beside  the  third.  This  will  strengthen  the  top.  "Be 
sure  the  shape  is  good.  Let  dry.  Shellac,  natural  or  colored. 

See  Figure  10. 

18— Raffia  and  Rattan  Mat 

Materials:     Number  two  or  three  rattan,  raffia,  needle. 

Directions:     Moisten  the  rattan  and  begin  a  coil.     Take 

a  needle  full  of  raffia.     Wind  the  end  of  the  coil  for  a  short 


30  INDUSTRIAL  WORK  FOR  GIRLS 

distance  and  fasten  it  together  in  a  ring  as  small  as  you 
can  draw  it.  Continue  coiling  the  rattan,  and  winding  it 
with  raffia.  Wind  from  you.  About  every  third  wind, 
pass  the  needle  between  the  ring  formed  and  the  next  coil 
of  rattan,  thus  fastening  the  rattan  to  the  ring.  The  third 
coil  is  fastened  to  the  second  in  the  same  manner  and  so 
on  until  the  mat  is  completed  to  any  desired  size.  Colors 
may  be  used  for  as  many  coils  as  you  wish,  making  borders. 
This  makes  a  soft  durable  mat. 

19— Collar  Box 

Materials:  Same  as  for  number  eighteen. 
Directions:  Make  the  bottom  six  inches  in  diameter, 
the  same  as  the  mat  was  made.  Then  turn  the  coils  up  to 
form  the  circular  side  of  the  box.  If  two  pieces  of  number 
two  or  three  rattan  are  wound  together  instead  of  one 
piece,  the  effect  is  more  pleasing,  and  you  will  have  a  firmer 
box.  Continue  the  coils  until  the  box  is  three  inches  deep. 
Now  make  a  cover  in  the  same  manner  as  the  bottom  was 
made,  turning  the  edges  up  half  an  inch,  so  they  will  fit 
down  over  the  box,  when  inverted  for  the  cover.  This 
may  be  fastened  on,  if  desired.  See  Figure  10. 

•20— Wastebasket 

Materials:  A  circular  base  of  one  half  an  inch  of  pine 
or  basswood  nine  inches  in  diameter,  heavy  rattan  for 
spokes,  number  seven  or  eight,  and  rattan  about  two  sizes 
smaller  for  weaving. 

Directions:  Drill  a  row  of  twenty-five  holes  one  half 
an  inch  from  the  edge  of  the  wooden  base.  Cut  twenty- 
five  spokes  of  heavy  rattan  about  two  feet  long,  and  put 
them  through  the  holes  so  that  they  extend  about  three 
fourths  of  an  inch  below.  Using  rattan  about  two  sizes 
smaller  as  a  weaver,  turn  the  bottom  side  up,  and  weave 


GENERAL  INDUSTRIAL  WORK 


31 


Figure  11.     Rattan  wastebaskets. 


six  or  eight  rows  around  the 
spokes,  as  in  basket  weaving. 
Then  fasten  the  ends  of  the 
spokes  securely,  making  a 
close  border.  Now  turn  the 
bottom  over,  and  press  the 
board  down  firmly  on  the 
rattan  base.  Begin  to  weave 
above  the  board,  keeping  the  twenty-five  spokes  the  same 
distance  apart,  and  shaping  the  basket  as  you  proceed. 
Make  to  any  desired  height,  usually  about  a  foot,  and 
fasten  the  top  of  the  spokes  as  for  the  mats  and  baskets. 
Cut  off  ends  of  spokes.  Colored  rattan  will  make  effective 
designs.  Finish  with  shellac.  See  Figure  11. 

21— Serving  Tray 

Materials:     Wooden  base,  pine  or  basswood  and  rattan. 

Directions:  Make  a  wooden  base  of  half-inch  material 
in  an  oval  about  fifteen  inches  long  and  ten  inches  at  the 
widest  part.  Bore  holes  for  heavy  rattan  as  for  the  basket. 
Make  the  spokes  long  enough  to  weave  and  fasten  below 
and  to  make  the  tray  about  two  inches  deep  with  a  close 
border  on  top.  Weave  with  number  five  or  six  rattan  and 


Figure  12.    Clay  work,  showing  fruit  and  geometrical  forms, 


32  INDUSTRIAL  WORK  FOR  GIRLS 

use  number  seven  or  eight  for  the  spokes.  This  makes  a 
very  firm  and  useful  tray.  It  should  have  two  coats  of 
shellac  for  finish,  either  dark  or  natural.  See  Figure  10. 

22— Clay  Modeling 

Materials:     Clay,  oilcloth,  water  colors  and  shellac. 

Directions:  Prepare  the  clay  the  day  before  it  is  to  be 
used.  Do  not  have  it  too  wet,  just  moist  enough  to  work 
well.  Knead  until  oily.  Mould  into  shape  of  object  being 
modeled.  If  fruit,  tint  with  water  colors.  Let  dry.  Shel- 
lac with  natural  finish.  See  Figure  12. 


CHAPTER  III 
SEWING  IN  THE  RURAL  SCHOOLS 

The  equipment  needed  by  each  child  for  sewing  is  not 
elaborate :  A  thimble,  needles,  thread,  emery  bag,  tape-meas- 
ure, shears  or  scissors,  one  pair  of  buttonhole  scissors,  and 
the  material  used  in  the  model  and  garment  making.  For 
some  of  the  advanced  work  a  sewing  machine  would  save 
time,  and  the  students  would  get  the  practice,  if  they  could 
use  one.  Some  rural  schools  rent  a  machine  for  all  or  part 
of  the  school  year,  as  it  is  needed.  Such  an  arrangement 
would  not  be  expensive  and  would  be  desirable. 

A  thimble  must  be  used  when  sewing.  Each  child 
should  furnish  her  own  and  have  it  fit  the  middle  finger. 
A  thimble  made  of  silver,  celluloid  or  aluminum  is  better 
than  one  of  brass,  for  the  latter  may  cause  infection  in  case 
of  a  sore  on  the  finger.  The  emery  bag  is  filled  with  pow- 
dered emery,  and  may  be  purchased  for  five  cents  at  any 
store.  When  the  hands  become  moist  and  sticky,  the 
needle  does  not  push  through  the  cloth  easily,  due  to  the 
rust  formation.  In  such  a  case,  polish  the  needle  by  run- 
ning it  through  the  emery  bag  a  few  times.  Scissors  are 
large  enough  for  school  use,  and  may  be  purchased  for 
twenty-five  or  thirty  cents.  Instruments  under  six  inches 
long  are  scissors;  those  six  inches  or  over  are  shears.  These 
may  be  brought  from  home  or  the  school  may  own  enough 
for  two  pupils  to  use  one  pair.  They  must  always  be  kept 
sharp,  or  they  will  neither  cut  easily  nor  accurately.  Do 
not  allow  them  to  drop,  as  they  may  be  loosened  or  even 
broken.  Tools  poorly  cared  for  will  not  give  good  service. 

Needles  and  thread  must  be  used  according  to  the  work 
to  be  done.  Mrs.  Blair,  in  her  Sewing  Tablets,  suggests  the 
following  : 

3—  33 


34 


INDUSTRIAL  WORK  FOR  GIRL8 


The  size  of  thread  used  should  be  in  proportion  to  the 
thread  of  the  material :  for  coarse  gingham,  about  number  70; 
for  fine  soft  muslin,  number  100.  It  is  always  best  to  use  a 
fine  needle  and  thread  for  hemming,  as  the  stitches  show  less. 
The  following  sizes  of  needles  are  commonly  used  with  the 
corresponding  number  of  thread: 

Needle  Thread 

Number  five Silkateen  and  Coarse  Cotton 

Number  seven Fifty 

Number  eight Sixty,  eighty 

Number  nine Ninety 

Number  ten One  hundred 

Number  eleven One  hundred  twenty 

Number  twelve One  hundred  fifty 

The  correct  length  of  a  needleful  of  thread  is  from  the 
tips  of  the  fingers  to  the  shoulder  of  the  extended  arm.  Do 
not  bite  the  thread;  cut  it  with  the  scissors  or  knife.  Thread 
the  needle  with  the  end  of  the  thread  cut  off  from  the  spool, 
as  this  will  prevent  knotting.  Be  sure  to  baste  all  seams 
before  attempting  to  sew  them.  Where  the  dimensions  of 
the  material  are  given,  the  first  is  to  be  on  the  length  of  the 
goods,  and  the  second  on  the  width. 


Figure  13.     The  sewing  room  at  a  central  school  of  au  associated  district. 


SEWING  IN  RURAL  SCHOOLS  .  35 

Correct  position  for  sewing  is  very  important.  The  body 
should  be  erect,  and  both  feet  squarely  on  the  floor.  The 
light  should  come  from  the  left  unless  the  student  is  left- 
handed.  Hold  work  high  enough  to  be  comfortable. 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  STITCHES 
Work  from  Right  to  Left 

Basting  is  used  to  hold  two  pieces  or  two  parts  of  one 
piece  of  cloth  in  the  exact  relation  desired  and  used  as  a 
guide  in  sewing.  The  stitches  are  made  over  and  under 
the.  material,  working  from  right  to  left.  If  stitches  are  of 
uneven  length,  have  long  stitches  over  and  short  under. 

Figure   14.     Basting   stitch. 

Running  is  light  stitching.  The  stitches  are  made  the 
same  as  in  basting,  but  are  short  and  of  even  length. 


Figure  15.     Running  stitch. 

Gathering.  For  gathering  the  running  stitch  is  used. 
When  several  inches  have  been  gathered  on  the  needle, 
bring  the  double  thread  from  the  eye  of  the  needle,  under 
the  point  and  then  under  the  eye,  making  the  figure  eight, 
and  drawing  the  thread  tight.  Continue  until  material  is 
held  securely  on  the  needle.  To  place  the  gathers,  hold 
them  firmly  as  they  are  on  the  needle,  between  the  thumb 
and  forefinger  of  the  left  hand,  and  with  the  index  finger  of 
the  right  hand  at  the  back  of  the  gathers,  and  the  thumb  on 
the  opposite  side  of  the  material,  bring  out  the  tiny  gathers. 
Then  pull  the  material  straight  till  the  gathers  are  fixed. 

Backstitching  is  done  as  follows:  Insert  the  needle  and 
make  a  stitch  under  the  material  twice  the  desired  length; 
again  insert  the  needle,  going  back  half  this  distance  and 


•/ALWOt." 


forward  twice  the  length  of  the  btefcititdi.  Thelmhrtll* 
if  toed  where  strength  is  desired  or  to  resemble  machine 

stitching.  Tbc  second  view  shows  a  row  of  buckfdtcbei  as 
it  would  be  seen  if  material  were  removed  from  the  right- 
hand  side  of  it. 


17. 


The  combination  stitch  consists  of  three  or  far 
sUlcbes  and  *  backstitch.    It  is  used  where 
required  than  is  obtained  with  rum 

Hemming.  \V  hen  bemmmg,  bold  the 
material  over  the  index  finger  of  the 
Ifft  hand.  To 
tfaeeodof  it  about  half  an 
the  edge  of  the  hem.  It  will  be  fcst- 

/\l     nmfle  paraBei  with  the  edge  of  hem, 
take  one  thread  of  the  material  and 

SM 


of  die  SWIM 

apart. 


together  and  wed  to 

Bee  "Buttonholes"    lor 
•cedte.  positkxi  of  thresd 


overhand  two 
hold  the 


To 


I 

•-: 

:'         v 


s/ Ml -l\G  IN  RURAL  SCHOOLS  $7 

hand  so  that  the  creased  edges  are  in  a  horizontal  position. 
The  stitch  is  made  by  bringing  the  needle  over  and  then 
straight  through  the  two  edges.  Make  stitches  shallow  and 
close  together.  Pull  the  thread  tight  for  each  stitch. 


Figure  19.     Overhand  stitch. 

For  hemstitching,  pull  six  threads,  fewer  if  the  material 
is  coarse,  twice  the  desired  width  of  the  hem  from  the  end 
of  the  material.  Turn  the  raw  edge  in  one  fourth  of  an  inch. 
Turn  and  fold,  having  the  first  folded 
edge  even  with  the  last  thread.  Baste. 
Hold  material  and  needle  as  for  hemming. 
Put  needle  under  three  or  four  threads  and 
hold  thread  as  in  making  chain  stitch. 


Figure  20.  Hemstitch.  Draw  tight.  Make  a  stitch  similar  to 
hemming.  The  thread  is  thus  brought  to  the  middle  of  the 
next  group.  Hold  thread  down  with  left  thumb,  put  needle 
under  next  group  of  threads,  and  continue  as  above. 

Work  from  Left  to  Right 

Overcasting  is  used  to  keep  the  raw  edges  of  the  cloth 
from  raveling.  It  is  made  by  bringing  the  thread  over  the 
edge  and  putting  the  needle  through  the  material.  The 
stitches  are  an  eighth  of  an  inch  in  depth  and  the  same  dis- 
tance, or  a  trifle  more,  apart. 


Figure  21.     Overcasting. 


The  loop  stitch  is  used  to  finish  the  raw  edges  of  flannel 
or  of  doilies.     See  illustration  on  next  page. 


INDUSTRIAL  WORK  FOR  GIRLS 


UJJL1JLJJJUJJJOU 


Figure  22.     Loop  stitch. 

Work  toward  One 

The  chain  stitch  is  an  ornamental  stitch.  In  making  it, 
the  thread  is  held  to  the  left  with  the  thumb  to  keep  it  under 
the  needle.  Always  insert  the  needle  within  the  last  link. 


Figure  23.     Chain  stitch. 


The  featherstitch  is  used  for  ornamentation.  When  mak- 
ing the  stitch  to  the  right,  hold  the  thread  to  the  left;  when 
making  the  stitch  to  the  left,  hold  the  thread  to  the  right  of 
the  general  direction  of  the  stem.  Clusters  of  two  or  three 
stitches  to  each  side  may  be  made  instead  of  the  single  one 
to  each  side. 


Figure  24.     Featherstitch. 

Work  Away  from  One 

The  catstitch,  or  catch  stitch,  is  an  ornamental  stitch.  It 
is  also  used  in  making  flannel  seams  and  hems.  The  row  of 
catstitch  grows  in  length  away  from  one,  but  the  needle  is 
inserted  toward  one. 


SEWING  IN  RURAL  SCHOOLS  39 


Figure  25.     Catstitch. 

SECOND  DIVISION,  ONE  YEAR 

1— Stitches.     (Six  Lessons.) 

Materials:  One  piece  of  one  eighth  inch  checked  apron 
gingham  sixteen  inches  by  six  inches,  number  7  needle  and 
red  cotton  thread  number  50. 

Directions:  Count  down  forty-two  checks,  fold  and 
crease  between  checks.  Knot  the  thread  for  basting  only, 
fasten  thread  with  short  running  stitches  and  backstitches. 

Basting  Stitches.  1st  row.  Down  from  folded  edge  two 
checks,  under  two  checks,  over  two  checks,  etc.  2nd  row. 
Down  from  first  row  four  checks,  under  one  check  over  three 
checks.  3rd  row.  Down  from  first  row  four  checks,  under 
one  check,  over  one  check. 

Running  Stitches.  4th  row.  Down  from  third  row  four 
checks.  Make  two  stitches  to  a  check. 

Backstitching.  5th  row.  Down  from  fourth  row  four 
checks,  making  stitches  one  eighth  inch  long,  half  way  across 
practice  piece.  The  other  half,  make  stitches  one  sixteenth 
inch  long. 

Combination,  or  running  stitches  with  the  backstitch 
for  every  needleful.  6th  row.  Down  from  fifth  row,  four 
checks.  Make  a  needleful  of  running  stitches,  then  a  back- 
stitch, then  the  running  stitches  again,  and  so  on. 

Chain  Stitch.  7th  row.  Down  from  sixth  row  four 
checks.  Make  each  link  one  eighth  inch  long. 

Catstitch.  8th  row.  Down  from  seventh  row  three 
checks.  Make  stitches  across  two  rows  of  checks.  Start 
at  left-hand  edge  and  work  away  from  you, 


40  INDUSTRIAL  WORK  FOR  GIRLS 

Feather,  or  Brier,  Stitch.  9th  row.  Down  from  eighth 
row  three  checks.  Make  stitches  across  two  rows  of  checks. 
Start  at  the  right-hand  edge  and  work  toward  you. 

Loop  Stitch.  10th  row.  With  the  lower  edge  toward 
you,  start  at  the  left  and  finish  edge  with  loop  stitch.  Make 
stitches  two  checks  deep  and  two  checks  apart. 

2— Needlebook.     (Six  Lessons.) 

Materials:  One  piece  of  art  canvas  five  inches  by  three 
inches,  one  piece  of  flannel  five  inches  by  three  inches;  one 
tapestry  needle  number  22  or  23,  one  crewel  needle  number 
7;  silkateen. 

Directions:  Loop  stitch  the  edges  of  the  canvas  cover 
and  the  leaves.  Sew  the  cover  and  leaves  together  with 
silkateen  and  tie  the  ends  into  a  neat  bow.  The  cover  may 
be  ornamented  with  one  of  the  stitches  learned. 


Figure  26.        Corner 

of    needlebook          Figure  27.    A  different 
cover.  arrangement  of  cor-         Figure  28.     Loop  at  corner 

ner  stitches.  of  holder. 

3 — Holder.     (Four  Lessons.) 

Materials:  One  piece  of  outing  flannel  six  inches  by 
twenty-four  inches,  number  7  crewel  needle  and  silkateen. 

Directions:  Fold  the  strip  of  outing  flannel  double,  hav- 
ing the  two  ends  meet  at  the  middle.  Fold  again.  Baste 
around  the  three  edges.  Loop  stitch  the  four  edges,  making 
the  four  corners  alike.  See  needlebook  cover.  At  one  corner 
make  a  loop  of  two  or  three  threads  of  silkateen,  then  loop 
stitch  over  them.  See  Figure  28, 


SEWING  IN  RURAL  SCHOOLS 


41 


Figure  29.     Holder.     Fold  material  on  dotted  lines. 

4 — Hemming  Dust  Cloths,  Towels  or  Dishcloths.  (Four  Lessons.) 
Material:  A  yard  of  cheesecloth,  for  the  first;  thirty 
inches  of  linen  toweling  or  a  bleached  flour  sack — if  large 
size,  cut  in  two — for  the  second;  one  third  of  a  yard  of  linen 
toweling,  or  a  large  sized  bleached  flour  sack  cut  into  four 
squares  for  the  third. 

Directions:  Turn  one  fourth  inch  hems,  baste  and  fell. 
To  turn  the  hem,  hold  the  material  so  that  the  raw  edge  is 
up,  turn  the  edge  down  about  three  sixteenths  of  an  inch, 
starting  at  the  right  hand  and  working  toward  the  left,  if 
right-handed.  Turn  the  material  again,  making  a  one 
fourth  inch  hem,  and  covering  the  raw  edge.  Hold  the  ma- 
terial in  the  same  position  as  when  turning  the  edge.  Baste 
and  hem  or  fell.  See  Hemming,  page  36. 

5 — Stockinet  Darning.     (Six  Lessons.) 

Materials:  Darn 
woolen  hose  with 
yarn  the  same  size 
as  in  the  stocking, 
and  cotton  hose  with 
darning  cotton  the 
same  size  as  that  in 
the  material.  Have 
the  pupils  bring  their 
own  stockings  from 
home  to  darn.  Use 
number  7  crewel 

Figure  30-     Stockinet  prepared  for  darning.  needle     for      medium 


42  INDUSTRIAL  WORK  FOR  GIRLS 

weight  cotton  and  cashmere  hose,  number  5  or  6  for  heavier 
weight  yarn  stockings. 

Directions:  Cut  away  worn  material,  making  a  rec- 
tangular hole.  Starting  at  one  corner,  make  one  row  of 
running  stitches  around  the  hole  about  one  eighth  of  an  inch 
from  the  edge.  Draw  up  the  thread,  leaving  the  hole  a 
little  larger  than  natural  size.  A  knot  may  be  avoided  by 
leaving  the  ends  of  the  cotton  rather  long.  Fill  in  the  warp, 
allowing  two  threads  for  each  row  of  stitches  in  the  stock- 
inet. Care  must  be  taken  to  leave  the  threads  equally 
loose.  Make  running  stitches  three  sixteenths  of  an  inch 
into  the  stockinet  at  each  end  of  the  threads.  When  all 
the  warp  threads  are  supplied,  begin  filling  in  the  woof  by 
weaving  over  and  under  the  warp  threads.  Always  put 
your  needle  over  the  threads  that  the  needle  went  under 
in  the  last  row.  Press  the  needle  down  close  to  the  pre- 
ceding thread  to  make  a  close  darn  and  to  avoid  drawing 
the  woof  threads  too  tight.  Make  running  stitches  into 
the  material  at  the  sides  the  same  as  at  the  ends.  In  a 
good  darn  there  are  raw  edges  on  neither  the  right  nor  wrong 
side,  and  the  edges  are  smooth  and  soft. 

6 — Gingham  Sewing  Bag.     (Eight  or  Nine  Lessons.) 

Materials:  One  piece  of  one  eighth  inch  checked  ging- 
ham, twenty-four  inches  by  eight  inches;  two  pieces  of  tape, 
each  twenty  inches  long  and  one  fourth  of  an  inch  wide. 

Directions:  Make  a  one  eighth  inch  hem  on  each  of 
the  two  long  edges.  At  each  end  make  a  two-inch  hem. 
Fold  double,  crosswise,  right  side  in.  With  all  edges  even, 
baste  through  the  hems  at  the  edges.  Begin  overhanding 
the  edges  together  just  below  the  two-inch  hems.  Fasten 
the  thread  by  sewing  over  three  eighths  of  an  inch  of  the 
end  of  it.  In  overhanding,  make  the  stitches  shallow, 


SEWING  IN  RURAL  SCHOOLS  43 

close  together,  and  draw  the  thread  quite  tight  as  you 
make  each  stitch.  Fasten  the  thread  at  the  end  of  the 
seam  by  making  four  or  five  stitches  very  close  together. 
Remove  bastings.  Turn  right  side  out,  push  out  corners, 
and  flatten  out  the  overhand  seams.  Measure  down  one 
and  one  half  inches  from  the  top  and  backstitch  or  use 
running  stitch,  with  a  backstitch  every  third  or  fourth 
stitch.  This  makes  a  one  half  inch  casing  for  the  tape. 
Start  one  piece  of  tape  at  one  edge  of  the  bag  and  run  it  all 
the  way  around.  Put  the  other  piece  in,  starting  at  the 
opposite  edge.  Tie  the  two  ends  of  each  tape  into  a  very 
small  bowknot. 

7— Buttonholes.     (Five  Lessons.) 

Materials:  One  piece  of  one  eighth  inch  checked  ging- 
ham five  inches  by  four  and  three  fourths  inches,  number  50 
thread  and  number  7  needle. 

Directions:  At  each  end  and  on  one  side  turn  edge 
down  one  fourth  inch.  Divide  the  width  into  thirds,  fold 


Figure  31.     First  stitch  Figure  32.     Second  stitch 

of  buttonhole.  of  buttonhole. 

the  raw  edge  in,  and  the  turned-in  edge  over.  Baste  all 
four  sides,  keeping  edges  and  corners  even.  The  right-hand 
portion  of  a  woman's  garment  buttons  over  the  left.  Con- 
sequently, the  buttonholes  should  be  worked  in  the  right- 
hand  portion.  Cut  horizontally  on  the  thread  of  the  goods 
a  medium  sized  buttonhole  one  fourth  inch  in  from  the  folded 
edge.  Use  buttonhole  scissors.  Hold  practice  piece  in 
left  hand  so  that  the  folded  edge  is  to  the  left  and  the  button- 


44 


INDUSTRIAL  WORK  FOR  GIRLS 


holes  run  along  the  length  of  the  finger.  Do  not  pull  edges 
far  apart,  because  they  ought  to  touch  when  the  button- 
hole is  worked.  Insert  needle  one  eighth  of  an  inch  from 
the  near  edge  at  right-hand  end  of  buttonhole.  Overhand 


Figure  33.  Position  of 
needle  for  button- 
hole stitch. 


Figure  34.  Position  of 
thread  for  button- 
hole stitch. 


the  edges  of  the  near  edge  of  buttonhole;  turn  the  practice 
piece  so  that  the  other  edge  becomes  the  near  edge.  Over- 
hand these  edges.  Do  not  make  the  stitches  close  nor  draw 
the  thread  tight.  It  is  best  not  to  overhand  at  the  ends 
of  buttonholes.  Turn  the  buttonhole  half  way  around  to 
its  original  position.  At  the  right-hand  end  of  the  button- 
hole, insert  the  needle  one  eighth  of  an  inch  from  the  near 
edge.  Take  the  two  threads  from  the  eye  of  the  needle  and 
bring  them  from  the  right  toward  the  left  under  the  point 
of  the  needle.  Draw  the  thread  quite  tight.  Continue 
along  the  near  edge  of  the  buttonhole,  making  the  stitches 
close  enough  so  that  the  threads  barely  touch  one  another. 
The  outer  end  of  the  buttonhole  is  fanned.  It  must  be 


Figure  35.     Finished  edge 
of  buttonhole. 


Figure  36.  Rounded 
end,  or  fan,  of 
buttonhole. 


Figure    37.      Pulling 
thread  to  make  fan. 


carefully  planned.  One  stitch  extends  from  the  end  of  the 
buttonhole.  Space  the  other  stitches.  These  are  farther 
apart  in  the  material  and  closer  together  at  the  corner  of 
the  buttonhole  than  the  stitches  along  the  edge,  but  they 
are  of  the  same  depth.  After  each  stitch,  draw  the  thread 


SEWING  IN  RURAL  SCHOOLS  45 

» 
tight  and  in  the  direction  of  the  buttonhole  stitch.     The 

little  knots  or  purls  at  the  end  of  the  buttonhole  must  be 
closely  packed,  one  beside  the  other.  When  working  the 
fan,  turn  the  piece  gradually  around,  so  that  you  always  put 
the  needle  in  directly  toward  you.  Continue,  buttonhol- 
ing the  second  edge  in  the  same  way  as  the  first.  Finish 
the  inner  end  of  the  buttonhole  with  a  bar.  Make  two  or 
three  stitches  the  length  of  the  first  and  last  stitches.  Work 
four  or  five  buttonhole  stitches  over  these  threads,  but  do 
not  take  in  any  of  the  cloth.  Buttonholes  running  length- 
wise in  a  garment  are  barred  at  both  ends. 

8 — Sewing  Apron.     (Twelve  Lessons.) 

Materials:  Use  twelve  and  one  half  or  fifteen  cent 
checked  gingham.  One  piece,  twenty-four  inches  by  twenty- 
two  inches,  one  piece,  the  waist  measure  plus  three  inches 
by  two  and  one  half  inches,  number  7  needle,  and  number 
60  or  70  thread  for  basting  and  gathering,  number  8  needle 
and  number  80  thread  for  hemming,  overhanding  and 
backstitching;  number  7  crewel  needle  and  silkateen  for  the 
ornamental  stitch. 

Directions:  Make  a  one  eighth  inch  hem  at  each  of 
the  edges  of  the  large  piece;  a  one  and  one  eighth  inch  hem 
across  one  end.  Have  the  three  hems  face  the  same  side. 
On  the  right  side  ornament  the  wide  hem  with  catstitch 
or  featherstitch.  Hold  the  right  side  of  the  apron  toward 
you,  the  wide  hem  down.  Turn  this  end  of  the  apron  up  to 
form  an  eight  inch  pocket.  Baste  at  sides,  keeping  edges 
of  hems  even,  then  overhand.  Next  remove  basting  threads, 
press  seams  flat,  turn  pocket  and  push  out  corners.  Orna- 
ment the  hem  above  the  pocket  with  the  same  stitch  as 
used  on  wide  hem,  and  continue  to  the  bottom  of  the  apron. 
Divide  the  pocket  into  three  equal  sections  and  catstitch 
or  featherstitch  between  them.  Gather  apron  across  the 


46  INDUSTRIAL  WORK  FOR  GIRLS 


top.     Baste  to  band,  having  fullness 
in  i  in  imifr    hang  straight  from  the   band   when 


m  1 111 1 1  ii  ii  uv^   worn.     Use  the  backstitch  when  sew- 
ing it  on  the  band.     This  seam  faces 
1  portion  toeemlke  bbS      the  wrong  side,  when  the  garment  is 

at   end    of   buttonhole. 


of  the  band  and  fold  over  this  seam,  just  to  cover  the  stitches; 
turn  in  the  edges  of  band  beyond  the  edges  of  the  apron, 
and  at  the  ends  of  the  band.  Baste.  Overhand  ends  and 
lower  edge  of  the  band  at  each  side  of  the  apron,  and  fell 
the  band  down  across  the  apron.  Ornament  both  edges 
and  ends  of  band.  Work  a  buttonhole  in  the  right-hand 
end  of  the  band.  Sew  a  button  three  fourths  of  an  inch 
from  the  other  end.  In  sewing  on  a  button  the  stitches 
should  extend  in  the  same  direction  as  the  buttonhole. 
The  thread  may  be  knotted,  if  the  knot  is  put  on  the  right 
side  so  that  .the  button  will  cover  it.  Fasten  the  thread  se- 
curely when  the  button  is  sewed  on. 

9 — Hemmed  Patch.     (Three  Lessons.) 

Materials:  For  the  practice  piece,  or  model,  use  one 
eighth  inch  checked  gingham,  one  piece  six  inches  square, 
one  piece  four  inches  square;  number  7  and  8  needles,  number 
70  and  80  thread. 

Directions:  Cut  the  material  between  checks.  Place 
the  small  square  in  center  of  large  square  so  that  the  warp 
threads  run  the  same  direction  in  both  pieces  and  so  that 
white  stripes  fall  on  white  stripes  and  colored  stripes  fall  on 
colored  stripes.  Cut  out  a  square  in  center  of  large  square, 
eight  checks  smaller  than  patch.  Cut  diagonally  through 
one  check  at  each  corner  of  this  hole  and  turn  back  each  of 
four  edges  one  check.  See  illustration  of  hemmed  patch. 
Place  patch  over  the  hole,  matching  stripes  and  warp.  Baste 


SEWING  IN  RURAL  SCHOOLS  47 


Figure   39.      Preparation 


patch  in  place,  two  checks  in  from  edge. 
Turn  in  edges  of  patch  one  check.   Baste 
near    the    turned-in    edge.     Turn    the 
other  side  toward  you,  and  baste  the 
turned-in  edge  to  the  patch.     Hem  this 
edge  down;  also  hem  around  the  patch 
on  the  wrong  side.     Overcast  the  edge 
for  hemmed  patch.      of  model.     Use  the  coarser  needle  and 
thread  for  basting,  the  finer  for  hemming  and  overcasting. 

10 — Application  of  Hemmed  Patch.     (Three  Lessons.) 
Materials:    A  gingham  or  calico  apron  or- dress,  or  a  grain 
sack;  same  kind  of  material  for  patch;  needles  and  thread 
of  suitable  size. 

Directions:  Cut  out  the  worn  portions,  making  a  square 
or  rectangular  hole.  If  the  material  is  figured,  striped,  or 
checked,  match  the  design  before  -cutting  the  patch.  Allow 
one  half  inch  on  each  of  the  four  edges  of  the  patch.  Proceed 
as  in  the  hemmed  patch. 

11— Hemstitched  Towel.     (Five  Lessons.) 
Materials:     One  yard  of  huckaback  or  linen  crash;  num- 
ber 7  needle  and  number  70  thread. 

Directions:  Draw  six  threads  two  and  three  fourths 
inches  from  each  end.  Turn  in  one  fourth  inch,  then  turn 
hem  and  baste  securely,  making  sure  that  edges  are  even  at 
ends  of  hem.  Overhand  ends  of  hems.  Hemstitch  hems. 

12 — Darning  Three-Cornered  Tear.     (Three  Lessons.) 
Materials:     A  piece  of  light  colored  woolen  material, 

ravelings  of  the  same  material,  or  thread  to  match,  a  number 

7  crewel  needle,  or  a  number  7  needle. 

Directions:     Make  a  three-cornered  cut  in  a  piece  four 

or  five  inches  square.     For  the  first  darn  the  pupils  should 

use  thread.     Cut  the  cloth  on  the  straight  of  the  goods  to 


48 


INDUSTRIAL  WORK  FOR  GIRLS 


get  the  ravelings.  Use  the  crewel  needle,  if  using  ravelings. 
The  stitches  making  the  edges  meet  are  not  removed.  Sup- 
ply the  warp  and  woof  threads.  In  crossing  the  cut  edges 


Figure  40 — Making  edges    Figure  41 — Fanned  three- 
of     three-cornered    tear        cornered  darn, 
meet. 


Figure  42 — Following  warp 
and  woof  in  the  three- 
cornered  darn. 


go  over  one  and  under  the  other  alternate  times.  The  corner 
may  be  fanned,  or  the  warp  and  woof  threads  followed.  To 
hold  down  any  ends  of  the  cut  threads,  finish  the  darn  with 
two  rows  of  running  stitches,  following  the  cut  or  tear. 
Make  all  the  stitches  very  short. 

13 — Application  of  Three-Cornered  Darn. 
(Two  or  More  Lessons.) 

Materials:  Garment  with  three-cornered  tear,  ravelings 
to  match,  number  7  crewel  needle. 

Directions:  Darn  as  for  the  three-cornered  darn  in 
Number  12. 

SECOND  DIVISION.     OTHER  YEAR. 

1— Stitches.     (Six  Lessons.) 

Materials:  The  same  materials  are  used  as  in  Number 
1,  Second  Division,  One  Year,  page  39. 

Directions:  Follow  the  directions  given  in  Number  1, 
Second  Division,  One  Year. 

2— Flannel  Seam  and  Hem.     (Three  Lessons.) 
Materials:     Two  pieces  of  white  flannel  each  eight  inches 
by  two  and  three  fourths  inches,  numbers  7  and  8  needles, 
number  70  thread,  sewing  silk. 


SEWING  IN  RURAL  SCHOOLS 


49 


Figure  43.     The  flannel 
seam  and  hem. 


Directions:  Place  the  two  pieces 
together  so  that  all  edges  are  even. 
Baste  the  two  pieces  together,  the  long 
way,  one  fourth  inch  from  edge.  Sew 
seam  with  silk,  three  sixteenths  inch 
from  the  edge,  using  the  running  stitch 
with  a  backstitch  for  every  needleful. 
Baste  the  seam  open,  and  catstitch.  See  cut  for  Flannel 
Seam.  Across  one  end  of  this  practice  piece  turn  toward  the 
wrong  side  a  one  and  one  eighth  inch  hem.  Baste  near  the 
folded  edge;  then  baste  hem  near  its  upper  edge.  Catstitch 
the  hem. 

3  -Flannel  Placket.     (One  Lesson.) 
Materials:     One  piece  of  flannel  eight  inches 
by  five  inches,  number  7  and  8  needles,  number 
70  thread,  and  sewing  silk. 

Directions:     Find  the  middle  of  either  end, 
and   cut  three  and   one   half  inches  into  the 
material,  following  the  thread.     Hold  the  piece 
of  flannel  so  that  the  right  side  is  toward  you 
and  the  opening  at  the  top.     On  the  right-hand 
edge   of  opening   make   a  seven   eighths  inch 
flannel  hem.     On  the  left-hand  edge  make  a 
Figure  44.      flannel  hem  three  eighths  inch  wide  at  the  top 
SdeW38 fla^n3  and  tapering  to  almost  nothing  at  the  bottom. 
placket.        Catstitch  at  the  bottom  of  placket  to  strengthen 
it  and  to  keep  the  right  edge  over  the  left. 

4 — Outing  Flannel  Petticoat.  (Fourteen  Lessons.) 
Materials:  Outing  flannel,  twice  the  desired  length  of 
petticoat  plus  one  third  yard,  one  piece  of  muslin,  the  waist 
measure  plus  two  inches,  by  two  and  one  half  inches,  number 
7  needle,  number  70  thread,  number  7  crewel  needle  and  silk- 
ateen. 


4— 


50  INDUSTRIAL  WORK  FOR  GIRLS 

Directions:  Cut  skirt  by  a  two  or  a  four-gore  skirt  pat- 
tern, allowing  three  inches  for  hem  and  from  two  to  three 
inches  for  shrinkage.  Make  seams  and  hem  as  directed  in 
Number  2  of  this  year's  work.  Cut  a  nine-inch  placket  in 
middle  of  back  gore.  Make  the  placket  as  directed  in 
Number  3  of  this  year's  work.  If  a  sewing  machine  is  obtain- 
able, the  seams  and  band  may  be  stitched  on  the  machine, 
but  must  be  done  under  the  teacher's  supervision.  Use  the 
silkateen  for  the  catstitching.  Find  center  front  of  the 
skirt  and  the  band.  Pin  these  two  points  together,  lay  the 
extra  fullness  in  plaits  at  the  back,  and  pin  at  the  seams, 
making  the  opposite  ones  equidistant  from  the  center  front. 
Baste  the  skirt  together.  This  seam  faces  the  wrong  side  of 
the  petticoat.  Sew  the  skirt  to  the  band,  using  the  back- 
stitch and  making  the  seam  one  fourth  inch  wide.  Remove 
the  basting  thread.  With  the  wrong  side  of  the  band 
toward  you,  turn  the  other  edge  of  the  band  down  one  fourth 
inch.  Fold  the  band  toward  the  wrong  side,  just  to  cover 
the  back  stitching,  pin  in  place,  turn  in  the  ends  of  the  band, 
at  least  one  fourth  inch,  and  baste  in  place.  Overhand  the 
ends  of  the  band  and  hem  the  lower  edge  of  the  band  in 
place.  See  Number  6,  for  button  and  buttonholes. 

5 — Buttonhole  Practice.     (Two  Lessons.) 

Materials:  The  same  as  in  Number  7,  Second  Division, 
One  Year,  page  43. 

Directions:  The  same  as  in  Number  7,  Second  Divi- 
sion, One  Year. 

6— Making  Buttonholes  in  the  Band  and  Sewing  Button 

on  the  Band  of  the  Outing  Flannel  Petticoat. 

(One  to  Three  Lessons.) 

Materials:  Outing  flannel  petticoat,  number  7  needle, 
number  50  thread,  one  pearl  or  vegetable  ivory  button. 


SEWING  IN  RURAL  SCHOOLS  51 

Directions:  Cut  one  buttonhole  in  the  right  end  of 
the  band  a  little  below  the  middle.  Work  as  directed 
above.  Make  buttonholes  in  the  band  to  correspond 
with  the  buttons  on  the  underwaist  with  which  the  petti- 
coat will  be  worn.  Bar  these  buttonholes  at  both  ends. 
Sew  on  the  button  one  half  inch  from  the  other  end  and 
slightly  below  the  center  of  the  band.  See  last  part  of 
Number  8,  Second  Division,  One  Year,  page  45. 

7— Flannel  Patch.     (Two  Lessons.) 

Materials:  Two  pieces  of  flannel,  one  six  inches  square, 
one  four  inches  square,  number  7  needle,  number  70  thread, 
and  sewing  silk. 

Directions:  Cut  a  hole  three  inches  square  in  center 
of  large  square  to  represent  the  worn  portion.  Place  evenly 
over  the  hole,  having  the  wrong  sides  of  both  pieces 
toward  you.  Baste  near  the  edge  of  the  patch,  and  near 
the  edge  of  the  hole.  Catstitch  patch  in  place  and  around 
the  edge  of  hole. 

8 — Application  of  Flannel  Patch.     (Two  Lessons.) 

Materials:  A  flannel  garment,  a  piece  to  match  for  the 
patch,  sewing  silk  to  match,  number  7  needle,  number  70 
thread,  sewing  silk. 

Directions:  Cut  away  the  worn  portions  making  hole 
rectangular,  if  possible.  Cut  patch  one  inch  larger  each 
way  than  the  hole.  Proceed  as  in  Number  7. 

9 — Three-Cornered  Darn.     (Three  Lessons.) 
Materials:     Same  as  in  Number  12,  Second  Division, 
One  Year,  page  47. 

Directions:  Same  as  in  Number  12,  Second  Division, 
One  Year. 

10 — Application  of  Three-Cornered  Darn.     (Two  Lessons.) 
Materials:    Same  as  in  Number  13,  Second  Division, 
One  Year,  page  48. 


52  INDUSTRIAL  WORK  FOR  GIRLS 

Directions:  Same  as  in  Number  13,  Second  Division, 
One  Year. 

11— Double  Hemstitched  Towel.     (Six  Lessons.) 

Materials:  Same  as  in  Number  11,  Second  Division, 
One  Year,  page  47.  Or  use  one  and  one  half,  or  one  and 
three  fourths  yards  of  material,  and  make  a  dresser  scarf. 

Directions:  Same  as  in  Number  11,  Second  Division, 
One  Year.  Hemstitch  along  the  other  edge  of  the  space 
where  threads  have  been  drawn.  Take  the  same  threads 
to  a  stitch  as  were  taken  in  opposite  stitch  of  the  single 
hemstitching. 

12— Plain  Seam.     (One  Lesson.) 

Materials:  Two  pieces  of  gingham,  each  eight  inches 
by  three  inches,  number  7  needle,  number  70  thread. 

Directions:  Baste  these  two  pieces  together,  one  fourth 
inch  from  edge.  Use  the  running  stitch  with  a  backstitch 
for  each  needleful  in  sewing  them  together.  Remove 
the  basting  thread,  trim  the  edges,  if  raveled,  and  overcast 
the  two  edges  together. 

13 — Gingham  Holder.     (Three  Lessons.) 

Materials:  One  piece  of  gingham,  calico  or  percale, 
twelve  and  one  half  inches  by  six  and  one  half  inches,  four 
thicknesses  of  sheet  wadding  five  and  seven  eighths  inches 
square,  number  7  needle,  number  70  thread,  silkateen. 

Directions:  Turn  in  edges  of  piece  of  gingham  one 
fourth  inch.  Fold  double,  crosswise,  crease  and  insert 
wadding.  Baste,  keeping  corners  and  edges  even.  Over- 
hand edges.  Make  two  rows  of  running  stitches,  at  right 
angles  to  each  other  at  the  center,  to  hold  the  wadding 
in  place.  Finish  with  a  loop  at  one  corner,  as  directed  in 
Number  3,  Second  Division,  One  Year,  page  40. 


SEWING  IN  RURAL  SCHOOLS  53 

14 — Gingham  Work  Apron.     (Sixteen  Lessons.) 
Materials:     Apron  gingham,   twice  the   desired  length 
plus  one  half  yard,  number  7  needle,  number  70  thread. 

Directions:    Remove  selvages,  cut  off 
a  three-inch  strip  the  entire  length  of 
piece  of  goods.     Cut  from  the  three-inch 
I          strip  the  ties,  each  twenty-seven  inches 
Figure  45.    Diagram  long.     The  band  is  the  waist  measure 

showing  how  to  cut    •.  -11  i  i      if 

out  apron.  less  two   inches   by   two   and   one   half 

inches,  and  is  cut  from  the  remaining  portion  of  the  three- 
inch  strip.  Cut  the  large  piece  crosswise  into  equal  parts. 
Cut  one  of  these  pieces,  lengthwise,  into  halves.  The  large 
piece  is  the  front,  and  the  two  narrow  pieces  are  the  side- 
pieces  of  the  apron.  On  each  edge  of  the  ties  and  one  edge 
of  each  of  the  sidepieces  of  the  apron  make  a  one  eighth 
inch  hem.  Make  plain  seams  in  apron,  a  three-inch  hem 
at  the  bottom  of  the  apron,  and  a  one-inch  hem  at  one  end 
of  each  tie.  Gather  the  apron  across  the  top  and  gather 
each  tie  at  the  end  not  hemmed.  Sew  apron  and  ties  to  the 
band.  See  Sewing  Apron,  Number  8,  Second  Division,  One 
Year,  page  45. 

THIRD  DIVISION      ONE  YEAR 
1 — Laundry  Bag.     (Six  Lessons.) 

Materials:  One  and  one  half  yards  of  white  linen 
crash  toweling,  three  yards  of  three  eighths  inch  tape,  num- 
ber 7  needle,  number  70  thread. 

Directions:  Make  a  two-inch  hem  at  each  end  of  the 
piece  of  toweling.  In  the  hem  make  a  row  of  backstitches 
one  half  inch  from  the  hemmed  edge,  thus  forming  a  casing 
for  the  tape.  Fold  double,  crosswise.  With  edges  on  each 
side  even  and  the  hems  even,  baste  together  the  edges  on 
each  side,  beginning  just  below  hem.  Overhand  edges 
together  on  each  side.  Fasten  thread  by  sewing  over  the 


54  INDUSTRIAL  WORK  FOR  GIRLS 

end  of  it.  Remove  the  basting  threads  and  turn  right 
side  out,  push  out  corners,  and  smooth  out  overhand  seams. 
Cut  tape  in  two.  Draw  it  into  casing,  starting  one  piece 
at  each  side  and  bring  each  all  the  way  around.  Sew  up 
the  two  ends  of  each  tape,  making  a  felled  seam.  See 
Number  4,  of  this  year's  work. 

2 — Overhand  Patch.     (Two  Lessons.) 

Materials:  Two  pieces  of  one  eighth  inch  checked 
gingham,  one  six  inches  by  six  inches,  one  four  inches  by 
four  inches,  number  7  needle  and  number  70  thread. 

Directions:  Match  stripes  and  warp  and 
cut  away  the  supposedly  worn  portion  as  in 
Number  9,  Second  Division,  One  Year,  page 
46.  Cut  diagonally  through  two  checks 
at  each  corner  of  the  hole.  Turn  the 
Figure  46.  Over-  edges  on  each  side  of  the  hole  down  two 

hand  patch   show-      ,        ..  . 

ing  details  of  the  checks.  Lay  the  piece  thus  prepared  on  the 
desk  wrong  side  up.  Place  the  patch  evenly 
over  the  hole,  matching  stripes  and  warp.  Turn  the  edges 
down  two  checks  on  each  side  of  patch.  (When  turning  an 
edge  always  turn  it  toward  yourself.)  Then  place  the  patch 
in  the  space  it  is  to  fill,  matching  stripes  and  warp.  Baste 
together  the  two  edges  that  touch,  the  wrong  sides  out,  and 
overhand  these  two  edges  together.  Then  remove  the  bast- 
ing thread,  baste  the  two  adjacent  edges,  overhand,  and  so 
continue  around  the  patch.  Press  the  overhand  seam  as 
smooth  as  possible  and  overcast  all  the  raw  edges. 

3 — Application  of  the  Overhand  Patch.     (Three  Lessons.) 
Materials:     A  garment  in  need  of  mending,  a  piece  of 
the  same  material,  number  7  needle  and  number  70  thread 
for  basting,  needle   and  thread  or  silk  suitable  to  use  with 
material  in  garment. 


SEWING  IN  RURAL  SCHOOLS  55 

Directions:  Remove  worn  portion,  making  a  square  or 
rectangular  hole;  fit  the  patch  to  it,  matching  the  design  and 
warp;  and  cut  the  patch  one  half  inch  larger  than  the  hole 
on  each  of  four  edges.  Proceed  as  in  Number  2  of  this 
year's  work. 

4— Felled  Seam.     (One  Lesson.) 

Materials:  Two  pieces  of  outing  flannel,  eight  inches 
by  three  inches,  number  7  needle  and  number  70  thread. 

Directions:  Place  one  of  the  pieces  on  the  other,  so 
that  the  ends  are  even  and  the  one  long  edge  of  the  under 
piece  extends  three  sixteenths  of  an  inch  beyond  the  edge  of 
the  upper  piece.  Baste  one  half  inch  from  the  edge  farthest 
out.  Stitch  just  outside  of  the  basting.  Remove  the  bast- 
ing thread.  Turn  in  the  wider  edge  one  fourth  inch;  then 
turn  this  part  of  the  seam  flat  over  the  narrow  edge  of  seam 
and  baste  the  turned-in  edge  to  the  material.  Stitch  very 
close  to  the  turned-in  edge. 

5— Outing  Flannel  Nightgown.     (Ten  Lessons.) 

Materials:  Three  times  the  required  length  plus  one 
yard  of  outing  flannel,  number  7  needle,  number  70  thread 
and  a  sack  nightgown  pattern. 

Directions:  Cut  out  all  parts,  allowing  for  the  growth 
of  the  individual  and  shrinkage  of  the  material.  Make 
felled  seam  on  the  shoulder,  under  the  arm  and  in  the  sleeve, 
having  the  back  come  over  the  front.  Hem  fronts  the 
desired  length  for  opening.  Stitch  the  two  fronts  together 
below  opening.  Hem  the  lower  edge  of  sleeve  and  gown. 
Gather  the  sleeves  at  the  top,  and  baste  them  into  the 
armhole.  If  the  sleeves  are  in  correctly,  stitch  them,  mak- 
ing a  half-inch  seam.  Remove  the  basting  thread  and  over- 
cast the  two  edges  together.  Baste  this  half-inch  seam  to 
the  adjoining  parts  of  the  gown,  stitch  again  one  fourth 


56  INDUSTRIAL  WORK  FOR  GIRLS 

inch  from  the  overcast  edge.  Cut  one  piece  as  for  a  lay- 
down  collar;  sew  it  to  the  gown  around  the  neck,  with  the 
seam  toward  the  right  side.  Remove  the  basting  thread, 
turn  collar  toward  the  right  side  of  gown,  and  baste  around 
the  neck.  Turn  in  the  edge  of  the  collar  and  baste  it  to  the 
gown.  Stitch. 

6— Buttonholes.    Review.     (One  Lesson.) 

Materials:  The  materials  are  the  same  as  given  in 
Number  7,  Second  Division,  One  Year,  page  43. 

Directions:  The  directions  for  making  the  buttonholes 
are  the  same  as  given  in  Number  7,  Second  Division,  One 
Year. 

7 — Buttonholes  and  Buttons.     (Three  Lessons.) 

Materials:  Nightgown  (see  Number  5,  of  this  year's 
work),  number  7  needle,  number  50  thread,  and  six  half- 
inch  pearl  buttons. 

Directions:  Work  six  buttonholes  as  directed  in  Number 
7,  Second  Division,  One  Year,  page  43,  in  the  right-hand 
portion  of  the  front  of  the  nightgown.  Sew  buttons  as 
directed  in  Number  6,  Second  Division,  Other  Year,  page 
50,  on  the  left-hand  portion  of  the  front  of  the  gown  to 
correspond  with  the  buttonholes. 

8— Stockinet  Darning.     (Six  Lessons.) 

Materials:  The  materials  are  the  same  as  given  in 
Number  5,  Second  Division,  One  Year,  page  41. 

Directions:  The  directions  are  the  same  as  given  in 
Number  5,  Second  Division,  One  Year. 

9— Sleevelets.     (Three  Lessons.) 

Materials:  One  half  yard  of  thirty-six  inch  wide  muslin 
or  India  linen,  needle  and  thread  to  correspond  with  material. 
A  "leg-of-mutton"  sleeve  pattern  with  but  one  seam. 


SEWING  IN  RURAL  SCHOOLS 


57 


Directions:  Cut  sleevelets  sufficiently  large  to  go  on 
over  dress  sleeves  and  to  reach  from  the  wrist  past  the  elbow, 
allowing  for  a  three  fourths  inch  hem  at  the  lower  edge, 
and  a  three  eighths  inch  hem  at  the  upper  edge.  Make  a 
French  seam  in  sewing  the  sleeve,  and  hem  the  upper  and 
lower  edges. 

10 — Hemming  Curved  Edge.     (One  Lesson.) 
Materials:     One  piece   of   fine   muslin   or  India  linen, 

seven  inches  by  seven  inches,  number  7  or  8  needle,  number 

70  or  80  thread. 

Directions:     Choosing  any  one  corner  as  the  center,  with 

seven  inches  as  a  radius,  cut  an  arc  of  a  circle.     Turn,  and 

baste  a  hem  less  than  one  eighth  inch  wide.     Hem. 

11 — Cap.     (Four  Lessons.) 

Materials:  One  half  yard  of  fine  muslin  or  India  linen, 
number  7  needle,  number  70  thread,  number  9  needle,  and 
number  90  thread,  and  one  piece  of  elastic  to  fit  head. 

Directions:  Cut  a  circle  eighteen  inches  in  diameter 
from  the  muslin.  To  cut  a  true  bias  fold  the  material  so 
that  the  warp  threads  fall  on  the  woof  threads, 
then  cut  on  the  fold.  Cut  one  and  one  half 
yards  of  bias  strips  seven  eighths  of  an  inch 
wide.  Make  a  one  eighth  inch  hem  around 
the  cap.  Turn  each  edge  of  the  bias  strip  one 
eighth  inch  under  and  baste  it  at  each  edge  two 
inches  from  the  edge,  on  the  wrong  side  of  the 
cap.  Cut  off  the  extra  amount  of  the  bias 
strip,  allow  enough  with  which  to  hem  each  end 
and  stitch  bias  strip  at  each  edge  to  the  cap. 

12 — Application  of  Patches  and  Darns.     (Two  to  Six  Lessons.) 
Materials:    See  Number  5,  Number  10  and  Number 
13,  Second  Division,  One  Year;  Number  8,  Second  Divi- 


Figure    47. 
Folding    the 
material      for 
a  true  bias. 


58  INDUSTRIAL  WORK  FOR  GIRLS 

sion,  Other  Year;  and  Number  3,  Third  Division,  One  Year. 
Directions:     For  directions  see  the  same  numbers  as 
for  the  materials. 

13— Tray  Cloth  or  Doily.     (Four  Lessons.) 

Materials:  One  piece  of  medium  fine  linen  of  the 
desired  size,  number  7  needle,  number  70  thread. 

Directions:  Draw  six  threads  one  and  one  half  inches 
from  each  edge.  See  cut  of  miter,  Number  5,  Third  Divi- 
sion, Other  Year.  Baste  hems  and  double  hemstitch  as 
in  Number  11,  Second  Division,  Other  Year,  page  52. 

14 — Buttonholes.     (Four  Lessons.) 

Materials:  Garments  brought  from  home,  needle  and 
thread  of  suitable  sizes,  the  thread  to  match  the  color  of 
the  material. 

Directions:  For  directions  see  Number  7,  Second  Divi- 
sion, One  Year,  page  43. 

THIRD  DIVISION.     OTHER  YEAR 
1 — French  and  Felled  Seams.     (Two  Lessons.) 

Materials:  Three  pieces  of  muslin  or  gingham,  each 
eight  inches  by  three  inches,  numbers  7  and  8  needles, 
numbers  70  and  80  thread. 

Directions:  For  the  French  seam,  baste  the  long  edges 
of  two  pieces  one  fourth  inch  from  the  edge.  Sew  one  eighth 
inch  from  the  edge.  Remove  the  basting  thread,  and  trim 
the  edges  slightly,  to  remove  all  frayed  edges.  Turn  the 
other  side  of  material  toward  you  and  baste  the  seam  just 
made  within  the  seam.  Stitch  this  seam  one  eighth  inch 
from  edge.  For  the  felled  seam,  see  directions  for  Number 
4,  Third  Division,  One  Year,  page  55.  Make  it  one 
eighth  of  an  inch  wide. 


SEWING  IN  RURAL  SCHOOLS  59 

2 — Long  Sleeved  Apron.     (Six  Lessons.) 

Materials:  Three  times  the  length  from  shoulder  to 
bottom  of  skirt  plus  one  yard  of  gingham  or  print.  If 
percale  is  used,  add  one  half  yard  to  three  times  the  re- 
quired length.  Number  7  needle,  number  70  thread  and 
a  long  sleeved  apron  pattern  with  straight  lines. 

Directions:  Cut  out  apron,  allowing  for  shrinkage  of 
cloth  and  growth  of  child.  Make  French  seams,  remem- 
bering that  the  first  time  they  are  basted  toward  the  right 
side  of  the  material.  Sew  in  the  sleeves;  finish  the  neck 
and  bottom  the  same  as  the  nightgown,  when  the  two 
edges  in  the  back  have  been  hemmed.  Make  two  pockets, 
each  seven  inches  by  six  inches.  Sew  one  pocket  on  each 
side  of  the  front  of  the  apron. 

3 — Buttonholes  in  Apron.     (Four  Lessons.) 

Materials:  Apron,  number  7  needle,  number  50  thread, 
and  eight  one  half  inch  pearl  buttons. 

Directions:  See  Number  7,  Second  Division,  One  Year, 
page  43,  and  Number  7,  Third  Division,  One  Year,  page  56. 

4 — Marguerite.     (Seven  Lessons.) 

Materials:  One  yard  of  muslin,  two  yards  of  lace  with 
beading,  one  piece  of  linen  tape  three  sixteenths  inch  wide, 
number  7  and  8  needles,  number  70  and  90  thread,  and 
corset  cover  pattern. 

Directions:  In  cutting  out  the  material  remember  the 
marguerite  slips  on  over  the  head,  and  that  it  is  best  not  to 
cut  it  very  low  around  the  neck.  Make  a  felled  seam  on 
the  shoulder,  a  French  seam  under  the  arm,  and  a  one 
eighth  inch  hem  at  the  bottom,  around  the  neck,  and  at  the 
armholes.  Make  a  felled  seam  when  joining  the  lace.  Sew 
the  lace  around  the  neck  and  armholes  with  the  overhand 
stitch.  Full  the  lace  slightly  under  the  arm  in  front  of  the 


60  INDUSTRIAL  WORK  FOR  GIRLS 

under-arm  seam.  Have  the  right  sides  of  the  marguerite 
and  of  the  lace  face  each  other,  with  the  lace  on  the  thumb 
side,  the  side  nearest  you.  Prepare  a  bias  fold  as  directed 
in  Number  9,  Second  Division,  One  Year,  to  fit  across  the 
back  at  the  waistline.  Baste  in  place  and  stitch.  Draw 
a  piece  of  tape  long  enough  to  tie  around  the  waist  through 
the  casing  formed  by  the  bias  fold.  Draw  the  tape  into  the 
beading  and  tie. 

6 — French  Hem  and  Miter.     (One  Lesson.) 

Materials:  A  seven-inch  square  of  medium  fine  linen, 
numbers  7  and  8  needles,  numbers  70  and  80  thread,  and  a 
four-inch  square  of  stiff  paper. 

Directions:     From  one  corner  of  the  paper, 
measure  five  eighths  of  an  inch  on  each  side, 
connect  these  two  points  with  a  straight  line, 
and   cut  along  this  line.     Cut  one   corner  of 
square  by  this  pattern.     Turn  each  of  the  ad- 
joining edges  one  eighth  of  an  inch,  then  a  one 
fourth  inch  hem.     Baste  near  the  turned-in  edge. 
Fold  the  hem  back  on  one  side  and  overhand  the  two  folded 
edges.     In  a  similar  manner  hem  the  other  side  adjacent  to 
the  mitered  corner.     Hem  the  miter  at  the  corner. 

6 — Application  of  French  Hem.     (Six  Lessons.) 

Materials:  Two  napkins  brought  from  home,  numbers 
7  and  8  needles,  and  numbers  70  and  80  thread. 

Directions:  Napkins  have  selvages  on  two  edges.  »Cut 
the  other  two  edges  straight  by  the  thread.  Make  a  one 
fourth  inch  French  hem  at  each  of  these  two  edges. 

7 — Gingham  Underskirt.     (Eight  Lessons.) 

Materials:  Twice  the  skirt  length  plus  three  fourths  of 
a  yard  of  striped  gingham,  number  7  needle,  numbers  70 


SEWING  IN  RURAL  SCHOOLS  61 

and  50  thread,  one  medium-sized  pearl  button,  and  a  plain 
five-gore  skirt  pattern. 

Directions:  Cut  the  gores  two  inches  shorter  than  the 
desired  length,  three  pieces  across  the  material,  each  five 
and  a  half  inches  deep,  for  the  ruffle,  one  piece,  the  waist 
measure  plus  two  inches  by  two  and  a  half  inches  for  the 
band,  one  piece  twenty  inches  by  two  and  a  half  inches,  for 
the  extension  placket,  and  enough  bias  strips  to  face  edge 
of  ruffle  and  to  finish  seam  at  upper  edge  of  ruffle.  Make 
French  seams  in  skirt,  leave  a  nine  and  a  half  inch  placket 
at  the  top  of  the  back  seam,  join  with  plain  seams  the  three 
pieces  of  the  ruffle  and  the  bias  strips.  To  face  one  edge 
of  the  ruffle  with  the  bias  strip,  put  the  right  side  of  bias  to 
the  wrong  side  of  the  ruffle,  having  their  edges  even,  baste 
and  stitch  three  sixteenths  of  an  inch  from  edge.  Remove 
the  basting  thread,  turn  the  bias  strip  toward  the  right  side 
of  ruffle,  baste  at  the  edge,  and  turn  under  the  upper  edge 
of  the  bias  strip.  Baste  and  sew  at  the  upper  edge.  Divide 
the  ruffle  into  quarters  and  notch  it;  then  gather  it  at  its 
upper  edge.  Divide  the  lower  edgb  of  the  skirt  into  quar- 
ters, starting  at  center  back.  Pin  ruffle  and  skirt  together 
at  notches,  the  wrong  sides  together.  Baste  the  two, 
arranging  the  gathers  evenly.  Then  baste  the  bias  strip  to 
the  ruffle  side  of  the  seam  just  basted,  having  the  right  side 
of  the  bias  strip  face  ruffle.  Stitch,  and  remove  the  basting 
threads.  Turn  the  bias  over  the  seam  and  baste  at  its 
lower  edge.  Finish  as  at  lower  edge  of  the  ruffle.  To 
make  the  extension  placket,  place  the  piece  cut  for  it  on  the 
wrong  side  of  the  skirt;  starting  at  the  upper  end  of  the  right- 
hand  portion  of  the  placket  opening,  baste  in  place;  taking 
particular  care  at  the  lower  end  of  the  placket,  sew;  remove 
the  basting  thread;  turn  the  other  edge  one  fourth  of  an 
inch  and  bring  it  over  the  seam  to  just  cover  the  stitches. 


62  INDUSTRIAL  WORK  FOR  GIRLS 

Baste,  sew,  and  remove  basting  thread.  To  sew  the  skirt 
to  the  band,  first  notch  the  middle  front  of  the  skirt.  Then 
notch  the  band  one  and  one  fourth  inches  to  one  side  of  the 
middle.  Place  the  band  on  the  wrong  side  of  the  skirt. 
Pin  the  notches  together,  with  the  longer  portion  toward 
the  left  side  of  the  skirt.  At  the  back  pin  the  skirt  to  the 
band,  the  left  portion  of  placket  extended,  and  the  right 
portion  turned  back.  Dispose  of  the  extra  fullness  by  gath- 
ering or  laying  it  in  plaits,  whichever  way  is  the  most  de- 
sirable. Remember  that  the  skirt  must  hang  straight  from 
the  band.  Baste,  and  stitch  the  skirt  to  the  band.  Con- 
tinue as  directed  in  Number  4,  Second  Division,  Other  Year, 
page  49.  Work  a  buttonhole  in  the  right-hand  end  of  the 
band  and  sew  the  button  on  the  band  at  the  left-hand 
end.  Have  the  ends  of  the  band  overlap  the  width  of 
the  extension  placket  one  inch. 

8 — Muslin  Nightgown.     (Eight  Lessons.) 

Materials:  Twice  the  length  from  the  shoulder,  at  the 
neck,  to  the  floor,  plus  one  half  yard  of  thirty-six  inch  mus- 
lin, two  yards  of  lace  with  beading,  one  piece  of  one  fourth 
inch  linen  tape,  numbers  7  and  8  needles,  numbers  70  and 
80  thread,  and  a  nightgown  pattern. 

Directions:  The  pattern  used  in  Number  5,  Third  Di- 
vision, One  Year,  could  be  used,  or  a  nightgown  pattern 
with  butterfly  sleeves.  One  third  yard  less  material  is  re- 
quired for  the  pattern  with  butterfly  sleeves.  If  the  pattern 
mentioned  first  is  used,  allow  two  inches  at  the  center  for 
fullness.  Add  three  inches  for  hem  to  the  required  length. 
If  it  is  necessary  to  piece  the  front  on  each  side  at  the  bot- 
tom, make  plain  seams.  (Make  felled  seams  on  the  shoulder 
and  French  seams  under  the  arm  and  in  the  sleeve.)  Make 
a  three-inch  hem  at  the  bottom,  and  a  one  eighth  inch  hem 


SEWING  IN  RURAL  SCHOOLS  63 

around  the  neck  and  at  the  lower  edge  of  sleeves  which  are 
of  elbow  length.  Gather  the  sleeves  at  the  top.  Baste 
sleeves  into  armholes,  and  fit  them.  If  the  sleeves  fit  prop- 
erly, sew  them,  making  a  three  eighths  inch  seam.  Over- 
cast the  raw  edges,  putting  a  stitch  through  each  of  the 
gathers.  Sew  on  the  lace  as  directed  in  Number  4  of  this 
year's  work.  There  are,  of  course,  no  separate  sleeves,  if 
the  butterfly  pattern  is  used. 

9 — Sofa  Cushion  Cover.     (Four  Lessons.) 
Materials:     Two  pieces  of  linen  or  cretonne  twenty-two 
inches  by  eighteen  inches,  two  pieces  each  twenty-two  inches 
by  two  and  a  half  inches,  thread  to  match,  number  7  needle, 
number  70  thread,  arid  four  clasps. 

Directions:  Face,  with  the  narrow  strips,  one  edge  of 
each  of  the  large  pieces.  Place  the  two  large  pieces  with  the 
faced  edges  together  and  the  right  sides  so  as  to  face  each 
other.  Baste  and  sew  one  fourth  inch  from  the  edge  at 
the  ends  and  the  side  not  faced.  Remove  basting  threads, 
trim  slightly  the  two  corners  just  stitched,  turn,  and  push 
out  the  corners.  Baste  near  the  edge  of  the  three  stitched 
sides;  baste  a  second  time  two  and  one  eighth  inches  from 
the  edge;  and  stitch  two  inches  from  the  edge.  Sew  the 
clasps  near  the  hemmed  edges  of  the  facings  at  the  opening. 
The  top  may  be  ornamented  with  a  stenciled  design,  cro- 
cheted motifs,  or  embroidery,  if  cover  is  of  plain  material. 

HOME  PROJECTS 

Patterns  may  be  altered.  A  plain  gored  skirt  pattern,  if 
it  is  too  long,  may  be  shortened  by  laying  a  plait  across  each 
gore  at  half  the  distance  down  from  the  top.  Have  the 
edges  even  at  the  front  or  the  part  of  the  pattern  that  will 
come  on  the  straight  of  the  goods.  If  the  pattern  is  too 
large  around  the  hips,  lay  equal  sized  plaits  lengthwise 


64  INDUSTRIAL  WORK  FOR  GIRLS. 

through  the  middle  of  each  gore.  Sleeve  patterns  are  re- 
duced in  a  similar  manner.  If  a  plain  waist  pattern  is  ''long 
waisted,"  determine  whether  the  extra  length  is  above  or 
below  the  bust  line  or  both.  Shorten  the  pattern  where 
it  is  too  long.  If  a  pattern  is  too  wide  across  the  shoulder, 
make  a  lengthwise  plait  through  the  middle  of  that  por- 
tion, and,  if  too  wide  under  the  arm,  do  the  same  there. 
If  a  pattern  is  too  narrow  or  too  short,  determine  where  to 
enlarge.  See  above  how  to  reduce.  Cut  the  pattern  and 
insert  a  strip  of  paper  of  the  required  width. 

Wash  goods  of  linen  or  cotton  and  woolen  goods  should 
be  shrunk  before  making  up.  A  tablespoonful  of  salt  added 
to  each  quart  of  lukewarm  water  used  when  shrinking 
the  wash  goods  sets  the  color.  When  pressing  the  mate- 
rial keep  the  edges  straight. 

If  the  material  is  figured,  checked  or  plaid,  decide  which 
is  up  and  which  is  down  and  cut  all  parts  the  same  way. 
1 — Pair  of  Drawers 

Materials:  Muslin,  twice  the  length  from  the  waist- 
line to  the  bent  knee  plus  six  inches,  two  and  a  half  yards  of 
five-inch  or  six-inch  embroidery,  thread  and  needles  of  suit- 
able sizes,  and  a  good  pattern. 

Directions:  Tear  off  a  strip  of  the  material  at  one  end 
to  straighten  it,  and  pull  the  goods  straight,  if  it  seems 
uneven.  Turn  up  the  lower  edge  of  the  pattern  five  or  six 
inches,  the  width  of  the  embroidery.  Place  pattern  on  goods 
with  its  lower  edge  on  the  straight  end  of  the  cloth  and  cut 
one  part.  To  cut  the  corresponding  part,  use  the  piece 
just  cut,  placing  the  woof  threads  in  it  on  the  woof  threads 
of  the  larger  piece  of  cloth.  Cut  two  pieces,  one  for  the 
placket  and  one  for  the  band  the  same  as  in  Number  7, 
Third  Division,  Other  Year.  W^hen  sewing  the  (short) 
seam  in  each  of  the  two  large  portions,  make  a  felled  seam. 


SEWING  IN  RURAL  SCHOOLS  65 

Join  with  a  felled  seam  the  two  portions,  which  should  be 
pairs,  having  the  two  short  seams  meet. 

If  the  placket  is  desired  at  the  back,  leave  the  length  of 
it  when  sewing  this  seam.  Or,  the  placket  may  be  made  at 
either  side.  Make  the  placket  and  sew  skirt  to  the  band 
as  in  Number  7,  Third  Division,  Other  Year.  Turn  up  the 
lower  edge  five  eighths  of  an  inch  toward  the  wrong  side. 
Baste  near  folded  edge.  Stitch,  making  a  three  sixteenths 
inch  tuck.  Cut  the  embroidery  into  two  equal  pieces,  trim 
upper  edge,  if  it  is  uneven.  Match  the  pattern  and  join 
with  a  plain  seam.  For  convenience  later,  divide  each 
flounce  into  fourths,  starting  at  the  seam,  marking  the 
upper  edge  with  a  notch  or  pin.  Gather  each  flounce. 
Divide  the  lower  edges  of  drawers  into  fourths,  starting  at 
the  seams.  Pin  a  flounce  to  the  raw  edge  of  each  portion, 
placing  seams  together,  also  wrong  sides,  and  notches. 
Baste,  arranging  gathers  uniformly,  stitch  each  three  six- 
teenths of  an  inch  from  edge  and  remove  basting  threads. 
Turn  the  seam  up  and  baste  the  tuck  down  over  it  and 
baste  the  tuck  in  place.  Stitch  in  the  very  edge  of  the  tuck. 
Finish  the  band  with  a  button  and  buttonhole. 

2— Wash  Dress 

Materials:  Select  material  that  will  launder  nicely  and 
that  is  suitable  to  the  wear  you  wish  to  give  the  dress  and 
of  becoming  color,  the  correct  size  of  a  simple  pattern,  of 
suitable  style  for  a  wash  dress,  thread  to  match  the  ma- 
terial, and  buttons  or  No.  2  hooks  and  eyes. 

Directions:  Styles  change  so  frequently  that  but  few 
general  directions  can  be  given.  Study  and  follow  direc- 
tions with  the  pattern.  Fit  pattern,  alter  if  necessary,  and 
lay  all  parts  of  it  on  the  goods  before  beginning  to  cut.  It 
is  sometimes  necessary  to  rearrange  the  parts  of  the  pat- 


66  INDUSTRIAL  WORK  FOR  GIRLS 

tern  in  order  to  cut  goods  economically.  Make  French 
or  plain  seams  in  skirt  depending  on  the  material,  an  ex- 
tension placket  as  in  Number  7,  Third  Division,  Other  Year. 
Baste  the  skirt  to  the  band.  See  that  the  seams  in  the 
skirt  hang  straight,  that  it  does  not  pull  anywhere  and  that 
it  is  even  at  the  bottom.  Finish  the  band  neatly  at  the 
ends,  being  careful  to  make  the  two  edges  of  the  placket  the 
same  length.  When  turning  the  hem,  dispose  of  the  fullness 
of  its  upper  edge  by  laying  a  small  plait  in  the  part  of  each 
gore  that  is  on  a  bias.  If  one  plait  disposes  of  fullness  but 
makes  the  skirt  longer  at  that  place,  make  two  a  small 
distance  apart.  The  lower  edge  of  a  plain  gored  skirt  is 
uniformly  curved,  if  the  hem  is  turned  correctly  and  no 
unusual  alterations  have  been  made  to  make  it  fit.  Finish 
the  waist  neatly  at  the  neck,  the  bottom,  the  lower  edge  of 
the  sleeves,  and  where  it  fastens.  When  putting  in  the 
fasteners,  whether  it  be  buttons  and  buttonholes,  or  hooks 
and  eyes,  make  sure  that  they  will  fullfill  their  purpose  of 
keeping  the  garment  properly  adjusted.  If  the  dress  re- 
quires a  belt  or  girdle,  sew  fasteners  in  it. 

REFERENCES  FOR  SEWING 

Books:  How  We  Are  Clothed,  Chamberlain;  Clothing  and  Other 
Textiles,  Carpenter;  Great  American  Industries,  Manufactories,  Roch- 
leau;  Shelter  and  Clothing,  Kinne  and  Cooley;  Textiles,  Dooley; 
Textiles,  Woolman  and  McGowan;  Sewing  Tablet  Series,  Blair. 

Farmers'  Bulletins,  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C.: 
Flax  for  Seed  and  Fiber,  No.  27;  Silkworm  Culture,  No.  165;  Angora 
Goat,  No.  137;  Sea  Island  Cotton,  No.  302. 

Minnesota  Farmers'  Library:  Industrial  Contests  for  Boys  and 
Girls,  No.  3;  Flax  Growing,  No.  27;  Rural  School  Agriculture,  No.  2, 
Revised. 


CHAPTER  IV 
PRINCIPLES  OF  HOME  SCIENCE 

It  is  not  the  intention  of  the  authors  to  advocate  that 
laboratory  work  should  be  done  in  one-room  schools.  The 
general  principles  here  discussed  are  such  as  all  girls  should 
understand,  however,  and  the  school  lessons  may  be  sup- 
plemented by  home  work  in  cooking.  Such  an  arrange- 
ment will  not  be  difficult  to  carry  out  in  small  schools. 
Semigraded  and  consolidated  rural  schools  should  provide 
for  laboratory  work. 

HUMAN  BODY  AND  STEAM  ENGINE  COMPARED 
In  comparing  the  human  body  with  a  steam  engine  we 
find  that  they  are  similar  in  that  both  require  fuel  to  pro- 
duce heat  and  energy,  or  power  to  work.  The  body  uses 
food  for  fuel  and  the  engine  uses  wood  or  coal.  They  are 
similar  in  that  both  require  material  for  building  and  re-" 
pairing  their  several  parts.  The  engine  is  built  of  different 
material  from  that  which  it  uses  for  fuel.  The  body  may 
consume  its  own  materials  to  produce  heat  and  energy,  if 
necessary.  The  growth,  or  development,  and  uses  of  the 
various  organs,  such  as  the  heart,  lungs,  etc.,  depend  upon 
the  nutrition  of  the  body. 

FOOD  DEFINED 

The  uses  of  food  are  (1)  to  build  the  body  and  keep  it 
repaired,  and  (2)  to  yield  heat  to  keep  the  body  warm  and 
to  supply  energy  for  work.  At  water  says,  "Food  is  that 
which  taken  into  the  body  builds  tissue  and  yields  heat  and 

energy." 

FOOD  PRINCIPLES,  OR  NUTRIENTS 

The  body  is  composed  of  from  fifteen  to  twenty  elements. 
The  most  abundant  are  oxygen,  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  cal- 

67 


68  INDUSTRIAL  WORK  FOR  GIRLS 

cium,  phosphorus  and  sulphur.  These  elements  form  a 
number  of  compounds,  the  most  important  being  carbohy- 
drates, protein,  fats,  mineral  matter  and  water.  These 
compounds  occur  in  the  body  and,  obviously,  they  are  also 
found  in  the  food  which  builds  the  body.  The  first  four  com- 
pounds are  often  referred  to  as  the  food  principles,  or  nu- 
trients. Water  is  not  classified  as  a  nutrient,  because  it 
does  not  build  tissues  or  yield  heat.  It  is,  however,  a  very 
important  constituent  of  food.  Each  of  the  food  principles 
has  a  special  function,  or  use,  in  the  body. 

Carbohydrates 

Carbohydrates,  such  as  starches  and  sugars,  yield  heat  and 
energy.  Vegetables,  cereals  and  fruits  supply  the  carbohy- 
drates, with  the  exception  of  milk  sugar  which  is  found  in 
milk.  Each  particle  of  starchy  foods,  such  as  cereals,  pota- 
toes, etc.,  contains  a  mass  of  minute  starch  grains.  Each 
starch  granule  is  surrounded  by  woody  fiber,  called  cellulose. 
Such  foods  as  potatoes,  oatmeal,  cornmeal,  macaroni,  rice, 
etc.,  should  be  cooked  to  soften  the  cellulose  and  permit  the 
starch  grains  to  swell  and  burst.  About  1  per  cent  of  the 
weight  of  the  human  body  is  composed  of  carbohydrates. 

Vegetables.  Select  firm  vegetables  and  wash  clean.  Po- 
tatoes, parsnips  and  other  roots  and  tubers  should  be  pared 
or  scraped,  and  cut  as  desired.  For  creamed  dishes,  they  are 
usually  cut  into  half-inch  cubes  or  one-eighth  inch  slices. 
Place  in  cold  water  to  prevent  discoloration.  Put  to  cook 
in  boiling  water,  usually  j  ust  enough  to  cover  the  vegetables. 
Cook  strong  flavored  vegetables  uncovered.  Parboil  strong 
flavored  vegetables,  drain  and  add  more  boiling  water. 
When  vegetables  are  about  half-cooked,  add  a  tablespoonful 
of  salt  for  each  quart  of  water  in  which  they  are  being  cooked. 
Cook  vegetables  until  tender.  A  time-table  is  suggestive. 


PRINCIPLES  OF  HOME  SCIENCE  69 

The  variety,  quality  and  age  of  vegetables  make  the  differ- 
ence in  the  length  of  time  it  takes  to  cook  them.  As  soon  as 
they  are  cooked,  drain  off  the  liquid  and  save  it,  if  it  is  to  be 
used.  Cover  the  vegetables  with  several  thicknesses  of 
clean  cloth,  that  the  steam  may  escape,  but  the  heat  be 
retained.  If  a  cover  is  placed  over  the  kettle,  the  steam 
remains  in  it,  which,  as  it  cools,  makes  the  vegetables  soggy. 
Use  the  liquid  in  which  vegetables  are  cooked  when  making 
cream  soups  or  creaming  vegetables. 

In  the  process  of  cooking,  the  water  dissolves  the  nutri- 
ents, and  flavors  are  withdrawn  from  the  vegetables.  Before 
combining  the  vegetable  and  the  liquid  in  which  the  vege- 
table has  been  cooked  with  milk  or  white  sauce,  add  soda 
if  the  vegetable  is  acid,  as  tomato  or  cabbage,  the  amount 
depending  upon  the  acidity  of  the  liquid.  Otherwise,  the 
milk  will  curdle. 

Cereals.  Like  vegetables,  cereals  are  put  to  cook  in 
boiling  water.  Use  from  two  and  one  half  to  five  parts  of 
water  to  one  part  of  the  cereal,  as  cereals  need  to  absorb  much 
water  in  the  process  of  cooking,  because  they  contain  but  a 
small  amount.  Cook  cereals  in  salty  water  directly  over 
the  fire  for  the  first  ten  minutes,  stirring  occasionally,  so 
that  the  mixture  does  not  stick  to  the  bottom  of  the  kettle 
or  to  the  upper  part  of  the  double  boiler.  Place  in  the  lower 
part  of  the  double  boiler  in  which  is  boiling  water,  or  in  a 
fireless  cooker,  and  continue  cooking  for  a  long  time.  Long 
slow  cooking  is  necessary  on  account  of  the  large  amount  of 
cellulose  that  cereals  contain.  This  must  be  softened.  Use 
from  one  to  one  and  one  half  tablespoonfuls  of  salt  to  one 
quart  of  water. 

Fruits.  With  the  exception  of  quinces  and  cranberries, 
fruits  are  eaten  mostly  in  the  fresh  state.  Use  only  sound, 
ripe  specimens.  Unripe  fruit  is  not  very  digestible,  unless 


70  INDUSTRIAL  WORK  FOR  GIRLS 

cooked,  and  overripe  fruit  lacks  flavor.  Serve  fresh  fruits  in 
season  and  serve  them  cold.  Cooked  fruits  are  usually 
either  baked  or  stewed.  Baking  is  used  with  large  whole 
fruits,  such  as  apples,  pears  and  bananas.  Stewing  may  be 
used  for  all  kinds  of  fruits.  Dried  fruits,  such  as  prunes,  figs, 
apples,  apricots,  etc.,  should  be  soaked  in  fresh  water  for 
several  hours  before  cooking. 

Protein 

The  protein  compounds  are  the  most  important  nutrients. 
They  are  the  muscle  builders  and  assist  in  the  building  of  the 
body  tissue.  About  18  per  cent,  by  weight,  of  the  body  of 
the  average  person  consists  of  protein  compounds.  These 
compounds  contain  nitrogen. 

The  chief  sources  of  protein  are  eggs,  lean  meat,  milk, 
cheese,  legumes  and  cereals.  Some  of  the  protein  compounds 
and  their  sources  are  albumin  in  egg  white,  albumin  and  myo- 
sin  in  meat,  casein,  or  curd,  in  milk,  legumin  in  peas  and 
beans  and  gluten  in  wheat.  The  protein-supplying  vege- 
tables are  the  cheapest  source  of  food  for  muscle  building. 

Eggs.  There  is  no  waste  to  eggs  except  the  shells.  If 
properly  cooked,  or  not  cooked  at  all,  the  egg  is  readily 
digested.  Heat  coagulates  the  albumen,  or  the  egg  white,  and 
cold  water  dissolves  it.  If  intense  heat  is  used,  the  white 
becomes  tough.  The  yolk  and  white  of  egg  are  evenly 
cooked  if  a  temperature  below  the  boiling  point  of  water, 
212°F.,  is  used. 

The  following  is  a  simple  test  for  eggs  to  be  used  for  the 
table  or  in  cooking:  Place  the  egg  in  a  tumbler  two  thirds 
full  of  water.  If  it  sinks  and  lies  horizontally  on  the  bottom 
of  the  tumbler,  it  is  suitable  for  poaching  or  soft  or  hard 
cooking.  If  the  large  end  of  the  egg  is  raised  a  little, 
the  egg  is  not  strictly  fresh.  If  the  large  end  is  raised 


PRINCIPLES  OF  HOME  SCIENCE 


71 


Figure   49.     Eggs  in  cartons,    the  neatest 
and  most  attractive  way  to  sell  or  buy. 


considerably  more,  the 
egg  is  not  suitable  for  the 
table,  but  can  be  used  in 
cooking.  If  the  egg 
comes  to  the  top,  it  is 
not  fit  for  food. 

To  hard- cook  an  egg 
proceed  as  for  "Soft- 
cooked  Eggs"  in  the  hot 
lunch  recipes,  Chapter  V. 
At  the  end  of  ten  min- 
utes, remove  from  the 
hot  water  and  cover  with 
boiling  water.  Let  "the 
egg  remain  in  this  water  for  ten  minutes.  Keep  dish  where 
the  water  will  keep  hot  but  not  boil.  Remove  from  the  hot 
water  and  place  in  cold  water  for  a  second  or  two,  so  that  the 
egg  white  will  not  stick  to  the  eggshell. 

Eggs  can  be  used  with  a  large  number  of  food  materials, 
because  their  flavor  is  not  pronounced  and,  therefore,  blends 
readily  with  other  flavors.  When  combining  egg  with  a 
hot  mixture  of  any  kind,  add  the  mixture  slowly  to  the 
beaten  egg,  while  stirring,  in  order  to  cook  the  egg  slowly. 
Egg  is  used  to  make  mixtures  light  with  enclosed  air  by  beat- 
ing the  egg  yolk  and  white  separately,  or  by  adding  the  egg 
to  the  mixture  and  beating  until  light.  The  first  method 
will  produce  the  most  feathery  product;  the  second,  the  finer 
grained,  but  more  compact.  Egg  mixtures,  as  well  as  eggs, 
should  be  cooked  slowly  and  not  longer  than  necessary. 
Cakes  containing  a  large  quantity  of  eggs  shrink,  if  baked  too 
long.  If  custards  are  steamed  or  baked  too  long,  or  with 
too  intense  heat,  whey  will  form.  Directions  for  making 
custards  are  given  in  recipes  in  Chapter  V.  Eggs  are  used  to 


72 


INDUSTRIAL  WORK  FOR  GIRL8 


thicken  liquids,  as  pudding  sauces.  They  are  also  used  to 
clear  liquids.  To  clear  beef  brolh,  stir  the  white  of  egg, 
slightly  beaten,  into  the  lukewarm  broth  and  allow  it  to 
come  to  a  boil.  Egg  white  is  used  to  clear  coffee,  as  given  in 
the  directions  for  making  coffee  with  egg,  page  94. 

Lean  Meat.  Meats  are  the  most  expensive  of  the  pro- 
tein-supplying foods,  on  account  of  the  high  cost  of  pro- 
duction and  the  length  of  time  necessary  to  cook  them. 
Only  s  the  lean  of  meat  supplies  protein.  This  chapter 
permits  only  a  brief  and  general  discussion.  The  kinds  of 
meats  are  beef,  veal,  mutton,  lamb,  pork,  game  and  poultry. 
The  flavor  and  tenderness  of  certain  cuts  of  each  kind  of 
meat  make  them  at  least  seem  more  desirable.  They  are 
more  desirable  to  those  who  can  spend  but  a  few  minutes  on 
the  preparation  of  their  meats.  Refer  to  the  figures  rep- 
resenting the  different  cuts  of  meat.  Start  at  the  loin, 
which  is  regarded  the  choicest  on  account  of  the  flavor  and 


Figure  50.     Diagram  of  cuts  of  beef. 


A.  Neck. 

B.  Chuck. 

C.  Ribs. 

D.  Loin. 

E.  Rump. 


F.  Brisket. 

G.  Fore  shank. 
H.  Shoulder. 

/.  Cross  ribs. 

J.  Plate. 


K.  Navel. 

L.  Flank. 

M.  Round. 

N.  Second  cut  round. 

(>.  Hind  shank. 


PRINCIPLES  OF  HOME  SCIENCE 


73 


Figure  51.     Diagram  of  cuts  of  veal. 


Neck. 
Chuck. 
Shoulder. 
Fore  shank. 
Breast. 


6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 

10. 


Ribs. 

Loin. 

Flank. 

Leg. 

Hind  shank. 


tenderness.  The  cuts  at  either  side  are  less  tender,  and  the 
farther  from  the  loin,  the  tougher,  as  the  neck,  the  shin  and 
the  shank.  The  food  value,  the  amount  of  protein  supplied, 
is  practically  the  same  regardless  of  the  location  of  the  cut, 
from  the  same  kind  of  meat. 


Figure  52.     Diagram  of  cuts  of  lamb  and  mutton. 


Neck. 

Chuck. 

Shoulder, 


Flank. 

Loin. 

Leg. 


74 


INDUSTRIAL  WORK  FOR  GIRLS. 


In-ordjer  to  render  the  tougher  and  less  pleasantly  flav- 
ored cuts  of  meat  palatable,  one  must  understand  the  effect 
of  heat  and  moisture  upon  meat.  Albumin  coagulates  when 
heat  is  applied,  and  it  dissolves  in  cold  water.  The  tissue 
which  surrounds  the  fibres  and  bundles  of  fibers  that  make 
up  the  muscles  and  encloses  the  muscle  itself  is  called  con- 
nective tissue.  The  muscles  taper  toward  the  ends  where 
there  is  more  and  stronger  connective  tissue,  gradually 
forming  the  tendons.  The  tendons  attach  the  muscles  to 
the  bony  frame.  When  a  muscle  shortens,  it  contracts 
through  the  largest  part  of  it,  and  some  part  of  the  body 
moves.  The  muscles  receiving  the  most  exercise  are  the 
strongest  and  are,  consequently,  the  toughest  on  account 
of  the  large  amount  of  connective  tissue  in  them.  When 
dry  heat  is  applied  to  meat,  the  connective  tissue  is  hardened. 
Moist  heat  softens  it.  Keeping  these  facts  in  mind  and 
applying  them  when  cooking  meats,  one  need  not  have 
tough  meat. 

If  we  wish  to  broil  or  roast  meats,  we  must  have  tender 
cuts,  because  we  apply  dry  heat.  See  "Methods  of  Cook- 
ing," page  84.  Upon  the  cutting  and  cooking  of  a  beef- 
steak, depend  its  tenderness.  Only  tender  cuts,  the  loin 


Figure  53.     Diagram  of  cuts  of  pork. 

1.  Head.  5.  Belly. 

2.  Shoulder.  6.  Ham. 

3.  Ribs.  7.  Loin. 

4.  Middle  cut. 


PRINCIPLES  OF  HOME  SCIENCE  75 

and  one  or  two  steaks  cut  from  the  round  of  young,  well- 
fed  beef,  can  be  broiled  to  advantage.  The  steak  should 
be  cut  at  least  an  inch  thick.  The  heat  should  be  sufficient 
to  sear  the  cut  surfaces  quickly  and  the  steak  should  be  turned 
frequently  to  apply  the  heat  evenly  to  both  sides.  When 
the  meat  is  seared,  the  albumin  near  the  surface  is  coagu- 
lated. This  coat  of  coagulated  albumin  retains  the  juices 
of  the  interior.  Now,  if  the  steak  is  cut  thin,  when  the 
surfaces  are  seared,  all  the  albumin  is  coagulated — the 
exterior  coat  extends  from  each  side  to  the  center  of  the  cut — 
and  there  are  no  juices  left  to  produce  a  juicy,  tender  steak. 
If  a  roast  is  to  be  cooked  in  the  oven,  its  cut  surfaces  must 
be  seared  in  order  to  retain  the  juices.  This  can  be  done 
either  by  searing  it  in  a  pan  on  top  of  the  stove,  or  the  oven 
may  be  very  hot  when  it  is  put  into  it,  and  the  heat  de- 
creased when  the  meat  is  seared. 

The  tough  cuts  of  meat  should  be  treated  in  just  the 
opposite  way — cooked  with  moist  heat  and  put  to  cook  in 
cold  water,  so  rione  of  the  albumin  will  be  coagulated  in  the 
meat.  The  tougher  cuts  of  meat  require  more  seasoning, 
and  sometimes  small  quantities  of  vegetables  are  added  to 
improve  and  vary  the  flavor.  The  less  choice  cuts  of  beef 
are  often  chopped,  as  Hamburg  steak,  meat  loaf,  etc.  In 
this  manner  the  connective  tissue  is  cut  into  very  short  pieces. 
Pork,  veal,  mutton,  lamb,  poultry  and  game  should  not 
be  cooked  rare.  They  are  more  wholesome  when  thor- 
oughly done. 

Milk  and  Cheese.  Mijk  and  cheese  belong  to  the 
protein-supplying  foods.  Clean  milk  is  essential  to  good 
health.  In  order  to  have  clean  milk,  the  milk  cans,  pails, 
pans  and  bottles — everything  in  which  milk  may  be  kept 
— must  be  thoroughly  washed,  rinsed  and  scalded.  The 


76  INDUSTRIAL  WORK  FOR  GIRLS 

milk  should  be  cooled  to  remove  the  animal  heat  and  then 
kept  in  a  clean,  cool  and  fresh  place. 

Milk  is  more  easily  digested  if  not  boiled.  It  is  pasteur- 
ized, scalded  and  sterilized  to  kill  different  kinds  of  disease 
germs,  such  as  those  of  tuberculosis,  typhoid  and  diph- 
theria. On  account  of  its  nutritive  value,  milk  should  be 
used  in  the  preparation  of  other  foods  with  which  it  is  com- 
patible. Milk  is  sometimes  called  a  perfect  food.  It  is, 
for  the  young.  While  it  contains  all  the  nutrients,  milk 
is  not  a  perfect  food  for  adults,  as  too  large  quantities  would 
be  required  to  supply  the  solids  necessary.  Even  the  best 
milk  is  very  largely  water. 

Cheese,  being  a  milk  product  that  consists  almost  en- 
tirely of  the  curd,  or  casein,  should  not  be  cooked  with 
too  intense  heat  nor  for  too  long  a  time.  It  is  a  very  concen- 
trated food  and  should  be  eaten  as  such.  Served  as  it 
usually  is,  with  dessert  at  the  end  of  a  heavy  meal,  it  is  likely 
to  cause  indigestion.  Eaten,  as  it  should  be,  as  the  main 
protein  part  of  the  meal,  it  is  wholesome  and  nutritious. 
Cheese  dishes  can  thus  be  made  a  meat  substitute. 

Legumes  and  Cereals.  The  legumes  are  those  plants 
that,  with  the  aid  of  soil  bacteria,  have  the  power  to  use 
nitrogen  directly  from  the  air  and  deposit  it  in  the  soil. 
Such  plants  are  clover,  peas,  beans,  vetches,  etc.  Those 
used  chiefly  for  human  food  are  the  peas,  beans,  lentils  and 
peanuts.  While  these  legumes  are  sometimes  not  regarded 
as  choice  food  as  meat  cuts  and  some  other  foods,  they  are 
rich  in  protein.  The  same  amount  of  nutrients  can  be 
obtained  for  a  very  small  fraction  of  the  cost  of  the  ex- 
pensive meats  or  eggs.  Legume  dishes  can  be  made  very 
palatable,  as  these  important  protein  foods  can  be  cooked 
in  a  great  variety  of  ways. 

Every  person  in  charge  of  purchasing  the  food  supplies 


PRINCIPLES  OF  HOME  SCIENCE 


77 


should  be  familiar  with  the  nutrients  in  the  common  food 
stuffs,  and  select  the  kinds  that  give  most  nourishment 
for  the  money.  Change  enough  for  variety  is  necessary, 
of  course;  but  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  various  methods 
of  preparing  foods  will  often  mean  real  economy,  both  as  to 
nutrients  and  cost. 

Average  Composition  of  Common  Food  Stuffs 

Compiled  from  Various  Bulletins 


Kind    of    Food 

Water 

Protein 

Fat 

<  'nr  bo- 
hydrates 

Ash 

Fruits: 

pr.  ct. 
84.6 

pr.  ct. 

.4 

pr.  ct. 
.5 

pr.  ct. 
14.2 

pr.   ct. 
.3 

Bananas  

75.3 

1.3 

6 

22. 

.8 

Prunes  uncooked  

22.3 

2.1 

73.3 

2.3 

Raisins  

14.6 

2.6 

3.3 

76.1 

3.4 

Vegetables: 
Beans,  dried  
Cabbage                          

13.6 
91.5 

22.5 
1.6 

1.8 
.3 

59.6 
5.6 

3.5 
1.0 

Corn  
Peas,  shelled  
Peas,  dried  
Potatoes,  white  
Tomatoes  

Cereals: 
Bread,  white  
Cornmeal  

75.4 
74.6 
9.5 
78.3  . 
94.3 

35.3 
12.5 
10.3 

3.1 
7.0 
24.6 
2.2 
.9 

9.2 
9.2 
13.4 

1.1 
.5 
1.0 
.1 
.4 

1.3 
4.9 
.9 

19.7 
16.9 
62.0 
18.4 
3.9 

53.1 
72.4 
74  1 

.7 
1.0 
2.9 
1.0 
.5 

1.1 
1.0 
1  3 

7  7 

16  7 

7  3 

66  2 

2  1 

Rice  
Wheat,  cracked  

Dairy  Products: 
Butter      

12.3 
10.1 

11.0 

8.0 
11.1 

1.0 

.3 
1.7 

85.0 

79.0 
75.5 

.4 
1.6 

3.0 

Buttermilk  
Cheese  Cheddar 

91.0 
27.4 

3.0 

27  7 

.5 

36  8 

4.8 
4  1 

.7 
4  0 

Cream  
Milk,  skimmed  .  .  . 

74.0 
90.5 

2.5 
3.4 

18  5 
.3 

4.5 
5  1 

.5 

.7 

Milk,  whole  

Meats: 
Beef,  round  
Beef   chuck  ribs 

87.0 

67.8 
62.7 

3.3 

20.9 
18  5 

4.0 

10.2 
18  0 

5.0 

.7 

1.1 

8 

Veal,  loin  
Mutton,  leg  
Pork,  loin  chop  
Ham,  smoked  
Bacon 

69.0 
62.8 
60.0 
40.2 
20.2 

19.9 
18.5 
20.0 
16.2 
10  5 

10.0 
17.7 
19.0 
38.8 
64  2 

1.1 
1.0 
1.0 

4.8 
5.1 

Fowl  

63.3 

19.3 

16.3 

1.1 

Broilers  
Bass  black 

74.8 
76  5 

21.5 
20  6 

2.5 
1  7 

1.1 
1  2 

Cod,  salt  
Eggs,  edible  portion  

53.5 

73.7 

21.5 
14.8 

.3 

10.5 

24.7 
1.0 

78  INDUSTRIAL  WORK  FOR  GIRLS 

Cereals  contain  protein  and,  when  purchased  in  bulk,  as 
they  should  be,  afford  a  comparatively  cheap  supply  of 
that  nutrient.  While  package  breakfast  foods  are  both 
sanitary  and  palatable,  they  are  expensive.  The  same 
nourishment  can  be  obtained  in  bulk  for  much  less  money, 
and  it  would  be  economy  to  purchase  them  that  way  and 
provide  sanitary  receptacles  in  which  to  store  them. 

Fats 

Fats  include  oils.  Fats  are  solids  at  ordinary  tem- 
peratures and  oils  are  liquid.  Fats  are  more  concentrated 
fuel  foods  than  carbohydrates  and,  consequently,  take 
longer  to  digest.  Fats  produce  more  heat  than  the  carbohy- 
drates. In  this  respect,  carbohydrates  and  fats  might  be 
compared  with  wood  and  coal  respectively. 

About  15  per  cent  of  the  weight  of  a  person  is  fat.  If 
more  fat  is  eaten  than  is  used  for  heat  and  energy,  it  is  stored 
as  body  fat  until  it  is  needed.  If  more  carbohydrates  are 
eaten  than  required  to  produce  the  necessary  amount  of  heat 
and  energy,  the  surplus  is  transformed  by  the  body  and 
stored  as  body  fat.  The  amount  of  fuel  the  body  needs 
is  dependent  upon  the  amount  and  kind  of  exercise  and 
the  climate. 

Fats  are  of  both  vegetable  and  animal  origin.  Olive 
oil,  cocoanut  oil,  cottonseed  oil,  oil  of  corn  and  of  wheat  are 
derived  from  vegetation.  Cream,  butter,  lard  and  tallow  are 
of  animal  origin.  A  number  of  fats  is  obtained  when  cook- 
ing meats,  poultry,  etc.,  as  beef  drippings,  bacon  fat,  chicken 
fat  and  goose  oil.  The  price  of  the  fats  depends  upon  their 
flavor — not  the  fuel  value — the  pleasantly  flavored  fats  and 
oils  being  higher  priced.  Fats  are  used  in  the  preparation 
of  most  dishes.  Lard,  cottolene  and  beef  tallow  are  used 
for  deep  fat  frying. 


PRINCIPLES  OF  HOME  SCIENCE  79 

Mineral  Matter 

Mineral  matter  is  a  class  of  nutrients  which  yields  only  a 
small  amount  of  heat,  if  any,  but  it  builds  bony  tissue,  such 
as  bone,  teeth,  hair  and  nails.  It  is  mineral  matter  which 
enables  the  skeleton  to  keep  its  form.  Without  this,  it 
would  be  soft  and  pliable.  From  5  per  cent  to  6  per  cent 
of  the  body  is  mineral  matter.  It  is  found  in  solution  in  the 
blood  and  other  tissues  of  the  body,  aids  in  the  digestion  of 
food  and  helps  to  regulate  other  body  processes. 

Vegetables  and  fruits  are  the  chief  source  of  supply  of 
mineral  matter.  It  is  located  directly  beneath  their  skins. 
Grains  contain  mineral  matter  also,  but,  in  the  process  of 
manufacture,  this  is  very  largely  lost,  so  that  the  breakfast 
foods  and  white  flour  contain  but  a  very  small  portion  of  the 
mineral  matter  of  the  grain  from  which  they  are  manufac- 
tured. 

Water 

Water  forms  60  per  cent  of  the  body.  Water  is  present  in 
all  the  tissues  of  the  body,  but,  as  it  does  not  burn,  it  yields 
no  heat  nor  energy.  About  50  per  cent  of  all  food  is  water. 
This  is  not  sufficient,  however,  and  in  addition  about  four 
pints  ought  to  be  consumed  daily.  Water  is  a  solvent  and 
aids  in  digesting  the  food  by  diluting  the  contents  of  the 
stomach  to  the  consistency  of  thick  cream  soup  and  diluting 
the  gastric  juices  so  that  they  can  readily  reach  and  act  on 
all  particles  of  food.  By  diluting  the  body  fluids,  water  is 
the  carrier  of  nutrition  to  the  cells  and  it  removes  waste 
products  from  every  cell  in  the  body.  On  account  of  this 
circulation,  the  heat  of  the  body  is  evenly  distributed. 
Body  heat  is  regulated  by  perspiration,  and  thus  the  body 
is  kept  at  practically  a  constant  temperature. 

Water  is  the  great  cleansing  agent  of  the  interior  of  the 
body  as  well  as  of  the  exterior,  For  drinking  purposes, 


80  INDUSTRIAL  WORK  FOR  GIRLS 

water  must  be  pure.     If  its  purity  is  doubted,  it  should  be 
boiled  and  cooled. 

Water  is  hard  or  soft  according  to  the  amount  of  mineral 
matter  it  contains.  Soft  water  is  a  better  solvent  of  dirt 
than  hard  water.  Water  containing  lime  is  softened  by 
boiling.  Borax,  sal  soda  and  ammonia  are  used  to  soften 
water.  Soap  is  used  for  the  same  purpose  and  to  act  upon 
grease,  making  the  removal  of  dirt  easier. 

PRESERVATION  OF  FOOD 

By  making  the  conditions  unfavorable  to  the  growth  of 
bacteria,  we  are  enabled  to  preserve  food  for  a  period  of  time, 
the  length  of  which  depends  upon  the  thoroughness  of  our 
efforts.  Warmth,  food  and  moisture  are  required  for  the 
growth  of  bacteria. 

The  object  of  preserving  food  is  to  have  various  foods 
when  they  are  out  of  season  and,  consequently,  are  high 
priced.  The  foods  are  preserved  in  season  when  at  their  best 
and  plentiful. 

Cold  Storage 

Preserving  food  by  the  removal  of  heat  checks  the  growth 
of  bacteria.  Freezing  meats  and  fish  or  keeping  them  in 
cold  storage  at  a  temperature  just  above  freezing  preserves 
these  foods  for  an  indefinite  time.  Butter,  eggs,  etc.,  may 
be  kept  in  a  similar  manner.  They  should  be  used  at  once 
when  thawed  out  or  removed  from  cold  storage. 

Drying 

Some  foods,  such  as  fruits,  berries  and  meat,  are  preserved 
by  removing  most  of  the  moisture  they  contain,  thus  check- 
ing the  growth  of  bacteria.  Before  cooking  these  dried 
foods,  moisture  is  supplied  by  soaking  for  several  hours  in 
cold  water. 


PRINCIPLES  OF  HOME  SCIENCE  81 

Salting 

Meats  and  fish  are  salted  by  placing  them  in  a  heavy 
brine.  The  salt  solution  displaces  the  natural  juices.  The 
food  is  preserved  because  the  moisture  is  removed  and  the 
growth  of  bacteria  is  checked. 

Smoking 

Meats  and  fish  which  are  to  be  smoked  are  first  salted 
in  brine  for  a  few  weeks.  They  are  then  washed  and  allowed 
to  drain  and  dry  for  two  or  three  days.  When  dry,  the 
pieces  are  hung  in  a  smokehouse  and  smoked.  The  smoke 
penetrates  the  meat  and  closes  the  pores  to  some  extent, 
thereby  excluding  the  air  and  preventing  attack  from 
bacteria  and  insects. 

Using  Preservatives 

Using  salt  has  already  been  discussed.  A  heavy  syrup 
of  granulated  sugar  will  preserve  fruits  and  berries.  Jelly 
and  preserves  are  examples  when  the  mixtures  are  cook- 
ed. The  principle  is  the  same  as  in  salting. 

The  chemical  preservatives,  usually  spoken  of  as  canning 
powders,  are  very  harmful  and  should  not  be  used. 

Canning 

Canning  used  to  be  sealing  sterilized  food  in  sterilized 
cans.  With  the  cold-pack  method  predominant,  canning  is 
the  process  of  sterilizing  clean  food  materials  packed  in  glass 
jars  or  tin  cans  and  sealing  the  jars  and  cans  when  removed 
from  the  canner.  See  U.  S.  bulletins  on  "Boys'  and  Girls' 
Home  Canning  Club  Work." 

Packing  Eggs 

Select  strictly  fresh  eggs — eggs  which  have  been  collected 
the  day  they  are  to  be  packed,  and  from  nests  from  which  the 
eggs  are  gathered  at  least  twice  daily.  By  excluding  the  air, 


82  INDUSTRIAL  WORK  FOR  GIRLS 

the  eggs  may  be  kept  fresh  for  several  months.  Care  should 
be  taken  to  place  the  small  end  down,  and  to  keep  the  eggs 
in  a  cool  place. '  Methods  tried  and  used  successfully  in 
school  work  are: 

(1)  Pack  the  eggs  in  an  earthen  jar  of  such  a  size  as  will 
hold  the  desired  number  of  eggs.     Cover  them  with  a  liquid 
glass  solution,   commonly  known  as   "water  glass."     Use 
from  eleven  to  twenty  parts  of  boiled  and  cooled  water  to 
one  part  of  liquid  glass.     Stir  well  and  carefully  pour  over 
the  eggs.     Have  enough  to  cover  the  eggs.     Cover  the  jar 
to  prevent  the  water  from  evaporating.      Result:   100  per 
cent  fresh. 

(2)  Wrap  each  egg  carefully  in  a  piece  of  newspaper 
about  ten  inches  by  eight  inches.     Pack  in  a  jar  or  pail  and 
cover  the  top  of  it.     100  per  cent  fresh. 

(3)  Eggs  packed  in  salt  are  often  difficult  to  remove 
when   wanted,  because   the   salt   absorbs   moisture   which 
evaporate?  when  there  is  less  moisture  in  the  air  and  leaves 
the  salt  hard.     During  this  process  the  egg  is  likely  to  absorb 
moisture  and  flavors.     75  per  cent  good  for  cooking. 

(4)  and  (5)     Bran  and  sawdust  are  light  weight  materials 
and  require  large  containers  if  they  are  used  in  packing  eggs. 
They  are  not  so  good  as  the  others  given.     80  per  cent  good. 

PLANNING  MENUS 

It  is  necessary  to  consider  age,  sex,  climate  and  season 
of  the  year  when  planning  menus.  The  growing  child 
needs  a  large  amount  of  protein  supplying,  or  muscle  building, 
foods  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  body.  An  adult  at 
hard  muscular  labor  requires  more  fuel  foods  and  also  muscle 
building  foods  to  produce  energy  for  work  and  to  repair  the 
waste  respectively.  Women,  generally  speaking,  require  about 
80  per  cent  as  much  food  as  men.  A  person  living  in  a  warm 


PRINCIPLES  OF  HOME  SCIENCE  83 

climate  does  not  require  the  fuel  foods  that  a  person  living 
in  the  North  does.  Nor  does  a  person  living  in  the  North 
require  so  much  of  the  heat  producing  foods  during  the  very 
warm  weather  as  during  the  cold  winter  months. 

Meals  should  be  planned  to  meet  the  requirements  of 
every  member  of  the  family  during  the  different  seasons  of 
the  year.  The  flavors  of  the  different  dishes  should  har- 
monize. The  reference  books  should  be  consulted  and  the 
menus  studied  carefully.  Work  out  a  balanced  diet  for  an 
average  working  man;  another  for  an  office  man.  Plan  a 
good  working  menu  for  your  home  family  for  one  week. 
Submit  it  to  the  teacher  for  approval. 

PURPOSE  AND  PRINCIPLES  OF  COOKING 

Some  foods  are  made  more  easily  digested  by  cooking  and 
others  more  difficultly.  Beef  and  eggs  are  more  easily 
digested  if  not  cooked.  When  cooked,  both  usually  are  more 
pleasing  in  appearance  and  more  palatable.  Raw  pork  may 
prove  harmful;  but,  if  thoroughly  cooked,  it  may  safely  be 
used  as  food,  because  cooking  kills  any  germs  and  parasites 
that  may  be  in  it.  Vegetables  and  cereals  are  generally 
more  easily  digested  when  cooked,  because  the  cellulose,  the 
woody  fiber  which  incloses  the  starch  granules,  is  softened 
and  the  starch  granules  expand  and  burst  the  cell  walls. 
As  a  result,  the  consistency  is  changed  to  a  soft,  pasty  mass, 
as  cooked  starch,  macaroni,  rice  and  potatoes.  Some  foods 
can  be  cooked  or  eaten  raw,  or  cooked  in  different  ways  to 
develop  or  modify  flavors. 

Summed  up,  the  purpose  of  cooking  a  food  may  be  one  or 
more  of  the  following: 

To  develop  flavor. 

To  make  food  more  palatable. 

To  make  food  more  pleasing  in  appearance. 


84  INDUSTRIAL  WORK  FOR  GIRLS 

To  kill  germs. 

To  render  food  more  easily  digested. 

To  give  variety. 

Methods  of  Cooking 

Heat  is  applied  to  the  food  either  by  means  of  hot  water, 
heated  air,  heated  metal,  hot  fat  or  a  combination  of  some  two. 

Foods  are  cooked  in  hot  water  by  the  following  methods  : 

Boiling  is  cooking  food  in  enough  water  to  cover  it. 

Stewing  is  cooking  food  in  a  small  amount  of  water  and 
keeping  the  kettle  tightly  covered. 

Steaming  is  cooking  food  directly  over  the  steam,  or 
indirectly,  when  in  a  double  boiler. 

Foods  are  cooked  by  hot  air  by  the  following  methods : 

Roasting  is  cooking  meat  in  a  heated  oven. 

Baking  applies  more  generally  to  bread,  cake,  etc.,  and  is 
the  same  as  roasting,  or  cooking  in  a  heated  oven. 

Broiling  is  cooking  meats  directly  over  the  fire.  A 
special  broiler  is  needed.  For  this  reason,  pan  broiling  is 
generally  used. 

Foods  are  cooked  by  hot  metal  by  the  following  method : 

Pan  broiling  is  cooking  food  in  a  hot  pan,  turning  it  often. 

Foods  are  cooked  by  hot  fat  by  the  following  methods: 

Frying  is  cooking  food  in  deep  fat. 

Sauteing  is  cooking  food  in  a  small  amount  of  fat  and 
turning  it  often. 

Foods  are  cooked  in  a  combination  of  hot  fat  and  hot 
water  by  the  following  method: 

Fricasseeing  is  begun  by  cooking  the  food  in  a  small 
amount  of  fat  until  browned  and  the  flavor  is  well  developed  ; 
then  a  small  amount  of  water  is  added  and  the  food  stewed 
until  tender.  The  cooking  is  completed  by  browning  again 
in  fat. 


PRINCIPLES  OF  HOME  SCIENCE  85 

Foods  are  cooked  by  a  combination  of  heated  air  and  hot 
water  by  the  following  method  : 

Braising  is  browning  the  food  in  the  oven,  adding  water 
and  stewing  in  a  covered  pan  in  the  oven  until  tender. 

Combining  Ingredients 

There  are  four  methods  of  combining  ingredients : 

Stirring  is  a  circular  motion  and  is  used  when  mixing  a 
dry  material,  as  flour,  with  a  liquid  and  when  stirring  the 
contents  of  a  kettle  while  cooking. 

Beating  is  a  circular  motion  used  to  inclose  air  in  a  mix- 
ture, as  a  batter  or  an  egg.  A  spoon,  wire  beater  and  Dover 
beater  are  the  tools  used. 

Cutting  is  used  to  mix  flour  and  shortening  for  pastry. 
One  or  two  knives,  or  a  fork,  are  used. 

Folding  is  used  when  adding  beaten  egg  white  to  a 
batter.  The  batter  from  near  the  bottom  of  the  dish  is 
carried  up  and  over  the  beaten  egg  white,  care  being  taken 
not  to  break  up  the  egg  white  so  that  the  enclosed  air  escapes. 

Working  Directions 

See  the  chapter  on  "The  Hot  Lunch"  for  measures,  ab- 
breviations, directions  for  measuring,  making  white  sauces 
and  thickening  soups.  For  general  directions  for  prepar- 
ing and  cooking  vegetables,  cereals  and  pastes,  see  "Carbo- 
hydrates," this  chapter.  For  preparation  of  meals, 
laying  the  table,  clearing  the  dinner  table  and  washing 
dishes,  see  Chapter  VII.  For  general  directions  for  cook- 
ing eggs  and  meats  see  "Protein,"  this  chapter.  For  meat 
and  egg  dishes,  see  Chapter  V. 

BREAD  MAKING 

Bread  is  used  in  some  form  by  all  civilized  peoples.  There 
are  two  classes  of  bread:  The  quick  breads,  which  are 


86  INDUSTRIAL  WORK  FOR  GIRLS 

leavened  or  made  light  with  a  leavening  agent,  as  soda  and 
baking  powder,  when  carbon  dioxide  gas  is  formed  rapidly, 
and  the  yeast  breads,  which  are  made  light  with  yeast. 
The  yeast  plants  give  off  carbon  dioxide  gas,  but  it  takes 
longer  to  make  dough  light  with  yeast,  because  the  plants 
must  multiply. 

Yeast  bread,  being  the  most  wholesome  arid  keeping 
best  if  thoroughly  baked,  will  be  considered  first.  The 
three  essential  ingredients  of  yeast  bread  are  flour,  yeast 
and  liquid. 

The  important  constituents  of  flour  are  starch  and  gluten. 
The  quality  of  gluten  in  wheat  flour  makes  it  possible  to 
make  light  bread.  Gluten  is  elastic  and  strong,  thus  giving 
the  carbon  dioxide  gas  an  opportunity  to  expand.  Yeast 
is  a  dust  plant  which  is  used  commercially.  For  bread 
making,  active  yeast  is  needed;  i.  e.,  yeast  with  strong  plants. 
Commercially,  yeast  comes  in  cakes,  as  compressed  yeast 
and  dry  yeast. 

Compressed  yeast  contains  more  moisture  and  does  not 
keep  as  long  as  dry  yeast,  but  it  contains  more  active  yeast 
plants.  If  kept  in  a  cool  place,  it  will  keep  for  a  week. 
Starch  is  mixed  with  the  yeast.  Dark  spots  in  compressed 
yeast  indicate  dead  yeast  plants. 

In  dry  yeast  there  is  cornmeal  or  other  cereal  meal. 
This  yeast  must  be  soaked  for  a  long  time  before  using.  A 
sponge  is  usually  made  in  the  evening  and  allowed  to  rise 
until  morning.  Liquid,  or  homemade,  yeast  is  made  of 
flour  and  water,  some  mashed  potato  or  potato  water  with 
some  dry  or  compressed  yeast  for  a  starter. 

Milk,  water,  half  milk  and  half  water  and  buttermilk 
are  the  liquids  used.  Liquid  consisting  of  equal  parts  of 
milk  and  water  gives  the  most  satisfactory  results.  The 
milk  should  be  scalded  to  prevent  the  bacteria  from  acting 


PRINCIPLES  OF  HOME  SCIENCE  87 

upon  the  lactose-,  or  milk  sugar,  changing  it  to  lactic  acid. 
The  temperature  of  the  liquid  should  be  between  75  and  90 
degrees  F. 

There  are  three  nonessential  ingredients,  sugar,  salt 
and  fat.  They  add  flavor.  Sugar  serves  as  a  ready  food 
for  the  yeast  plant,  which  lives  upon  the  starch  in  the  flour, 
first  changing  it  to  sugar.  Fat  improves  the  crumb. 

Yeast  Bread — One-Loaf  Basis 

Recipe—  Directions:     Scald  the  milk. 

Y*  c  milk  Add  the  cold  water.     Put  yeast 

l/2  c  water  J        f 

3  c  flour  or  more  to  soak  in  two  tablespoon!  uls  01 

%  c  dry  yeast  lukewarm  water  an  hour  or  two 

2  t  sugar  before  making  the  sponge.    Keep 

1  *  fat  the  yeast  in  a  warm  place.    Dur- 

ing the  cold  weather  if  flour  is  cold,  warm  it  before  using. 
Warm  the  bowl  with  warm  water  if  eathenware  is  used. 
Pour  milk  and  water  into  the  bowl,  add  sugar,  salt,  fat 
and  enough  flour  to  make  a  smooth  batter.  Add  yeast, 
mix  thoroughly.  Add  more  flour,  enough  to  make  two 
cupfuls.  Beat  the  sponge  to  enclose  air  and  make  smooth 
by  distributing  the  gluten  evenly.  Cover  and  wrap  the 
bowl  in  a  cloth  to  prevent  its  getting  chilled.  Early  the 
next  morning,  add  more  flour  and  knead  it  on  the  moulding 
board  until  it  does  not  stick  to  the  hands  or  the  board  when 
no  flour  is  used.  Clean  the  bowl  out  carefully  by  rubbing 
it  with  a  little  flour.  Sprinkle  a  very  small  amount  of  flour 
into  the  bowl,  place  in  it  the  dough  and' sprinkle  it  very  spar- 
ingly with  flour.  Cover  and  keep  warm  while  it  rises  to 
twice  its  original  size.  Knead  again  to  distribute  the  gas 
evenly.  Form  into  loaves.  Place  in  a  greased  bread  tin. 
Brush  the  top  with  butter;  cover  lightly  with  a  towel  while 
the  loaf  rises. 


88 


INDUSTRIAL  WORK  FOR  GIRLS 


If  a  wood  or  coal  range  is  used,  a  fire  must  be  started 
one  half  hour  or  more  before  the  oven  is  wanted,  in  order 
to  heat  it.  Test  the  heat  of  the  oven  with  a  piece  of  white 
paper.  If  the  paper  is  a  golden  brown  at  the  end  of  five 
minutes  the  oven  is  ready.  The  temperature  should  be 
highest  during  the  first  ten  to  fifteen  minutes.  The  loaf 
will  rise  some  and  become  slightly  specked  with  brown, 
whereupon  it  will  cease  rising.  The  heat  of  the  oven  can 
be  decreased  gradually  from  now  until  the  loaf  is  baked. 


Figure  54.     Diagram  of  stove,  showing  course  of  draft  and  heat  when  oven  dam- 
per is  open  and  when  shut — 1,  ashpan;  2,  fire-box;  3,  oven;  4,  stovepipe. 

The  time  required  to  bake  a  single  loaf  is  from  fifty  to  sixty 
minutes.  When  baked  and  removed  from  the  oven,  the  top 
crust  can  be  brushed  with  milk  or  butter,  which  both  softens 
and  flavors  it.  Cool  the  bread,  placing  it  out  of  a  draft  but 
so  that  the  air  can  circulate  around  it.  Have  a  bread  box, 
preferably  a  tin  box  or  can  or  an  earthen  crock,  washed, 
scalded  and  aired,  in  which  to  store  the  bread  when  it  is 
thoroughly  cooled.  The  crust  will  be  softened  after  being 
in  a  covered  box  for  a  few  hours.  Bread  should  not  be 
wrapped  in  cloth.  The  bread  box  should  be  scalded  and 
aired  before  fresh  bread  is  put  into  it. 


PRINCIPLES  OF  HOME  SCIENCE  89 

QUICK  BREADS 
Griddle  Cakes  with  Sour  Milk  and  Soda 

R<3/Pc  flour  Directions:     Mix  and  sift  the 

%  c  of  sour  milk  dry    ingredients.     Add    to    the 

1  T  butter  or  m  jjk  and  meited  butter  or  butter- 
M  c  rich  buttermilk  .   . 

14  t  salt  milk  in  the  mixing  bowl.     Mix 

^  *  soda  and  beat  well.     Bake  on  a  smok- 

ing hot  griddle.  Grease  slightly  for  the  first  baking  only, 
unless  the  cakes  should  burn;  then  scrape  and  grease.  When 
the  upper  side  is  full  of  holes,  and  the  cake  shows  signs  of 
being  baked  more  than  half  way  through,  turn  and  bake 
on  the  other  side.  Be  sure  that  the  cakes  are  well  baked. 
If  the  milk  is  not  thick,  use  more  flour,  about  one  and  one 
half  tablespoonfuls.  Serve  as  soon  as  baked. 

Muffins  with  Eggs 

Recipe—  Directions:    Mix  and  sift  dry 

1^  c  flour  ingredients,    add    milk,    beaten 

2  T  baking  powder 

\/2  1  salt  egg  yolk  and  melted  butter,  beat- 

1  1  sugar  mg  eacn  weu  m  before  adding 
1  cmilk  ^  ...    . 

l  egg  the  next.     Fold  in  the  beaten 

1  T  melted  butter  egg  wnite.     Bake  in  a  hot  oven 

from  twenty-five  to  thirty  minutes.  The  heat  can  be  de- 
creased during  the  last  half  of  the  time. 

Baking  Powder  Biscuit 

Recipe—  Directions:  Take  out  a  round- 

4  t  baking  powder  mS   tablespoonf  ul   of   flour   and 

t  salt  put    with    the    baking    powder. 

Cut  the  butter  into  the  flour  with 


two   knives,   held  in  one   hand 

with  the  forefinger  between  the  blades  just  below  the  handles; 
or  rub  the  butter  into  the  flour  with  a  fork,  by  pressing  down 


90  INDUSTRIAL  WORK  FOR  GIRLS 

with  the  fork,  so  that  the  flour  and  fat  pass  up  between 
the  tines.  When  thoroughly  mixed,  add  flour  with  baking 
powder.  Mix  well  and  add  the  milk,  gradually,  to  the  dry 
flour.  Handle  as  little  as  possible.  Place  on  floured  mould- 
ing board.  Use  a  case  knife  for  handling  dough.  Roll 
to  one  inch  and  cut  with  a  biscuit  cutter,  first  dipped  in  flour. 
Place  half  an  inch  apart  on  a  greased  tin.  Bake  in  a  hot 
oven  twenty  to  twenty-five  minutes. 

For  meat  pie  crust,  roll  biscuit  dough  one  inch  thick  and 
bake  on  a  greased  tin.  There  is  no  danger  of  its  being  doughy 

on  the  side. 

Steamed  Dumplings 

When  the  ingredients  for  making  baking  powder  bis- 
cuits are  mixed,  take  the  dough  by  spoonfuls,  roll  in  flour  and 
place  all  on  a  hot  plate  in  a  steamer.  Steam  for  half  an 
hour,  then  test  with  a  pointed  knife.  Serve  hot  with  stews. 
If  covered  with  a  cloth  and  kept  in  a  warm  place,  dumplings 
can  be  kept  hot  for  a  reasonable  length  of  time  without 

spoiling. 

CAKE  MAKING 

There  are  two  classes  of  cakes — butter  cakes  and  egg 
cakes,  or  those  without  butter.  For  butter  cakes,  cream  the 
butter,  add  the  sugar  and  cream  until  the  sugar  is  dissolved. 
Add  the  beaten  yolks  to  creamed  butter  and  sugar,  add  flour 
and  milk,  alternately,  until  all  of  both  is  used.  A  little  flour 
is  added  to  the  baking  powder.  Mix  well  and  add  to  the 
mixture.  Add  the  flavoring.  Fold  in  the  beaten  whites. 
Bake  on  well  greased  tins  in  a  hot  oven  until  done.  When 
baked,  the  cake  will  recede  from  the  sides  of  the  tin.  It  is 
well  to  try  the  cake  in  the  center  with  a  toothpick  to  see  if 
the  cake  sticks.  It  is  baked  if  the  toothpick  comes  out  clean. 
The  yolk  and  white  of  one  egg  may  be  added  at  a  time  to  the 
creamed  mixture  and  beaten  until  light.  Then  proceed  with 


PRINCIPLES  OF  HOME  SCIENCE  91 

the  remainder  as  directed.  Bake  cakes  that  are  made  with- 
out butter  with  moderate  heat.  These  cakes  shrink,  if 
baked  in  a  hot  oven  or  too  long. 

Rich  Butter  Cake 

Re3ciPe~gar  Directions:    Put  together  as 

\Y2  T  butter  directed  for  butter  cake.     Bake 

i/t  biking  powder  in  a  muffin  Pan'      ™S  am°Unt  is 

YZ  egg  enough  for  two  cups,  if  they  are 

2  or  3  drops  flavoring  rWr» 
Y2  c  2  T  flour 

Cheap  Butter  Cake 
Recipe — 

gSEJgE,.  Directions:    Mix  ingredients 

Y2  c  milk  as    directed    for    butter    cake. 

lXgc  flour  Bake    in    a    greased    loaf    tin. 

3  t  baking  powder  This  recipe  makes  one  layer. 
J4  t  flavoring 

Angel  Food  Cake 

Recipe—  Directions:     Mix     and     sift 

1  c  egg  white  %     sugar  and  flour  seven  or  eight 

1  t  creTrn  of  tartar  times«      Beat   eggs   slightly,    add 

I  c  flour  cream    of   tartar    and    continue 

I 1  almond  extract  or  vanilla  beatjng;  uging  ft  wire  ^^  mta 

the  egg  whites  do  not  slip  from  the  dish,  when  it  is  inverted. 
Add  flavoring.  Carefully  fold  beaten  egg  white  and  sugar 
and  flour  mixture  together.  Bake  in  a  tubed  tin,  which 
has  not  been  greased.  Bake  in  a-  slow  oven  for  sixty 
minutes,  or  until  the  cake  does  not  stick  to  a  toothpick. 
When  baking,  keep  cake  covered  during  first  half  of  the  time. 

Sponge  Cake 

Sponge  cake  is  another  kind  of  egg  cake.  The  egg  yolk 
is  beaten  until  lemon  colored.  Add  the  sugar  gradually; 
then  the  liquid  and  flavoring,  and  the  flour.  The  beaten 
egg  whites  are  folded  in. 


92  INDUSTRIAL  WORK  FOR  GIRLS 

COOKIES 

Plain  Drop  Cookies 

ReiCxpcTx*  Directions:    Cream  the  but- 
Y±  c  butter 

^  c  sugar  ter  and  sugar.     Add  the  egg  and 

2  T  milk  beat>     Add   milk.     Mix   baking 

1  Ggg 

1  t  baking  powder  powder  with  a  tablespoonf  ul  of 

1  c  plus  1  T  flour  flour<     Add  the  remainder  of  the 

flour  gradually  to  the  mixture.  Beat  well.  Add  baking 
powder,  and  mix  thoroughly.  Drop  by  the  teaspoonful 
about  two  inches  apart  on  a  greased  tin.  Bake  in  a  hot 
oven. 

Rocks 

Recipe—  Directions:    Cream  the  but- 

\Y±  c  sugar 

3  eggs  ter  and  sugar.     Add  the  beaten 

1  c  butter  yolks,  milk  and  the  dry  ingredi- 

3*c  flour  ents.      Flour  the  chopped  rais- 

3  t  baking  powder  jns  and  nuts  and  a(Jd  them  to  the 

Yi  c  English  walnuts  .                               .... 

1  c  raisins  mixture.     As  each  ingredient  or 

1  t  cinnamon  mixture  of  two  or  more  is  added, 

YA  t  cloves  .  •     ,  .  .  .         ^  .  .     .       M. 

y%  t  allspice  mix    thoroughly.     Fold    in    the 

beaten    whites.     Drop    with    a 

teaspoon  an  inch  apart  on  the  greased  tin.  Bake  fifteen 
minutes  in  a  hot  oven.  This  amount  makes  four  dozen. 

PIE  MAKING. 

Pie  Crust 

Recipe—  Directions:     Mix  ingredients 

Y±  c  fat  as  directed  for  biscuit.     Roll  out 


water  °ne  ei6hth  inch  thick'     To   fit 

j|  t  salt  the  crust  to  the  tin,  lift  it  with 

H  t  baking  powder  the  roUing  p[^  and  pkce  it  QVer 

the  tin.    Fit  the  crust  to  it.    For  a  double-crust  pie,  such 
as  apple  or  mince,  trim  the  crust  even  with  edge  of  tin, 


PRINCIPLES  OF  HOME  SCIENCE  93 

fill,  dampen  the  edge  and  lift  the  upper  crust  in  place,  after 
cutting  a  few  air-holes  in  it.  Press  the  edges  together  with  a 
fork,  after  trimming  the  edge  as  on  the  first.  Bake  pie  crust 
in  an  oven  that  will  brown  a  piece  of  white  paper  in  three 
minutes.  When  the  crust  does  not  stick  to  the  tin,  it  is  baked. 
While  it  is  necessary  to  start  baking  the  pie  in  a  hot  oven  on 
account  of  the  shortening,  it  is  necessary  to  decrease  the 
heat  so  that  the  filling  may  cook  and  the  crust  not  be  over- 
done. When  a  single  crust  pie  is  being  made,  bake  the  crust 
first,  after  having  built  up  the  edge  by  turning  the  crust  under 
about  three  fourths  of  an  inch,  and  pressing  the  edges  to  make 
it  stand  up.  Thicker  pies  can  be  made,  if  the  edge  is  of  uni- 
form height. 

Banana  Pie 

To  make  a  banana  pie,  first  bake  a  single  crust.  Fill  with 
sliced  and  sugared  bananas.  Cover  with  whipped  cream. 

Prune  Pie 

Stew  enough  prunes  to  fill  the  crust.  Pit  the  prunes  and 
fill  the  crust  with  them.  Cover  with  whipped  cream. 

SALADS 

Salads  are  very  important.  By  means  of  such  dishes, 
vegetables,  fruits,  left  overs  of  meats  and  fish,  etc.,  that 
otherwise  might  be  wasted,  can  be  utilized.  Lettuce  and 
cabbage  dressed  with  vinegar,  salt  and  pepper,  or  vinegar 
and  sugar,  are  simple  salads.  So,  also,  are  boiled  beets 
dressed  with  vinegar.  Most  of  the  green  vegetables,  and 
some  fruits,  are  good  dressed  with  oil  and  vinegar.  A  simple 
cooked  egg  dressing,  mixed  with  an  equal  amount  of  whipped 
cream  and  seasoned  to  suit  the  flavor  of  the  mixture  it  is  to 
dress,  can  be  used.  Mustard  is  not  required  with  a  cabbage 
salad,  as  the  cabbage  contains  mustard.  Nor  should  sugar 
be  used  for  a  potato  salad.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to 
make  a  salad  mussy  in  appearance  by  stirring  it. 


94  INDUSTRIAL  WORK  FOR  GIRLS 

Cooked  Egg  Dressing 

Directions:     Heat  the  vine- 

C2  eggTor  &ar-     Beat  the  eggs  and  pour  the 

4  egg  yolks  boiling  vinegar  slowly  into  the 

2*t  butter  ^  beaten    egg.       Return    to    the 

fire  and  cook  slowly  while  stir- 
ring constantly,  or  cook  in  a  double  boiler.  Add  butter 
when  cooked.  For  meat  and  vegetable  salads,  season  with 
mustard,  salt  and  pepper.  For  fruit  salads,  season  with 
sugar,  salt  and  pepper. 

BEVERAGES 
Coffee 

Recipe —  Directions:    Good  coffee  can 

1  c  wate?  ^e    made  by  starting  it  with  cold 

water  or  with  boiling  water.     If 

starting  it  with  cold  water,  place  the  coffeepot  where  it 
will  heat  and  when  the  coffee  comes  to  a  boil  remove  it  to 
a  cooler  place  where  it  will  keep  hot.  Serve  in  five  minutes. 
If  the  liquid  coffee  is  grayish  in  color,  it  indicates  that 
the  water  should  be  boiled  before  adding  the  coffee.  The 
iron  in  hard  water  discolors  coffee.  If  the  water  is  boiling, 
place  the  coffeepot  where  it  will  keep  hot  for  five  minutes 
but  not  boil.  It  is  as  well  if  coffee  does  not  boil.  Be  sure 
to  serve  it  hot.  Half  an  egg  white  to  six  tablespoonfuls  of 
coffee  will  keep  the  coffee  clear  when  making  it  with  cold 
water.  As  the  water  heats,  the  egg  white  coagulates  and 
entangles  the  coffee  grounds.  Use  only  a  clean,  aired  and 
scalded  coffeepot.  Do  not  allow  the  coffee  to  remain  long 
with  the  grounds,  as  they  will  spoil  it. 

Cocoa 
c6 water  Directions:    Heat  the  water 

V*  c  milk  and  mix  the  cocoa  and  sugar. 

1  t  cocoa  ...  ...  .  . 

\Y2  t  sugar  Add  some  boiling  water,  making 


PRINCIPLES  OF  HOME  SCIENCE  95 

a  smooth  paste.  Pour  this  into  the  boiling  water.  Let  it 
simmer  for  five  minutes.  When  ready  to  serve,  scald  the 
milk  and  add  it  to  the  hot  cocoa  mixture.  Milk  is  more 
easily  digested  if  not  boiled. 

Tea 
Recipe—  Directions:     Heat  the  teapot 

1  c  Sling  water  with    hot    water-      Put    tea    and 

boiling  water  into  the  teapot  and 

allow  the  tea  to  steep  not  more  than  five  minutes,  where  it 
will  keep  hot  but  not  boil.  Serve  hot.  Use  while  fresh. 

Lemonade 

Recipe —  Directions:    Dissolve  the 

jZSfl±£  (medium)     sugar  in  a  little  hot  water.    Chill. 
y±  c  to  K  c  sugar  Cut  the  lemons  and  orange  in 

3  c  water,  ice-cold  halveg       gqueeze  the  juice  from 

them.  Mix  juice,  syrup  and  ice-cold  water.  Place  a  thin 
slice  of  lemon  in  each  glass,  and  serve  at  once. 

EXPERIMENTS 

Soda  and  an  Acid.  Prepare  a  vinegar  solution,  two  tea- 
spoonfuls  in  half  a  glass  of  water.  Half  fill  two  test  tubes 
with  the  solution.  Drop  about  a  sixteenth  of  a  teaspoonf  ul 
of  soda  into  each  tube.  Stir  it.  Watch  the  bubbles  rise. 
With  what  are  they  filled?  Heat  one  tube.  Watch  for 
any  change  that  may  occur.  What  conclusion  do  you  come 
to  as  to  speed  when  making  quick  breads,  cakes,  etc.? 
Effect  of  the  heat  of  the  oven? 

Baking  Powder  and  Water.  Try  a  similar  experiment, 
using  one  quarter  of  a  teaspoonf  ul  of  baking  powder  in  the 
water.  Are  the  results  similar?  What  is  your  conclusion  as 
to  the  effect  of  moisture  on  baking  powder?  Heat? 

Qualities  of  Gluten.  Make  a  stiff  dough,  using  one 
quarter  of  a  cupful  of  water  and  flour.  Does  kneading  it 


96  INDUSTRIAL  WORK  FOR  GIRLS 

change  its  appearance?  What  has  occurred?  Place  the 
dough  in  cheesecloth  or  a  wire  strainer.  Wash  with  run- 
ning water.  What  color  is  the  water?  What  colors  the 
water?  When  thoroughly  washed,  is  the  mixture  as  white? 
What  is  left?  Take  it  up  in  your  hands  and  pull  it.  Does 
it  have  elasticity?  How  does  this  quality  help  to  make 
light  bread? 

REFERENCES  FOR  DOMESTIC  SCIENCE 

Books:  Domestic  Science:  Principles  and  Application,  Bailey; 
Boston  Cooking-School  Cook  Book,  Farmer;  Household  Science,  Shep- 
perd;  How  We  Are  Fed,  Chamberlain;  People's  Health,  Coleman;  First 
Lessons  in  Food  and  Diet,  Richards;  Human  Physiology,  Ritchie; 
Foods  and  Their  Uses,  Carpenter;  How  the  World  is  Fed,  Carpenter. 

Farmers'  Bulletins,  Department  of  Argiculture,  Washington,  D.  C.: 
Meats,  Composition  and  Cooking,  No.  34;  Facts  About  Milk,  No.  42; 
Care  of  Milk  on  the  Farm,  No.  63;  Milk  as  Food,  No.  74;  Bread  and 
Bread  Making,  No.  112;  Beans,  Peas  and  Other  Legumes,  No.  121; 
Eggs  and  Their  Uses  as  Food,  No.  128;  Principles  of  Nutrition,  No.  142; 
Cereal  Breakfast  Foods,  No.  249;  Preparation  of  Vegetables  for  the 
Table,  No.  256;  Use  of  Fruit  as  Foods,  No.  293. 

Minnesota  Farmers'  Library:  Dressing  and  Curing  Meat,  No.  11; 
Domestic  Science  in  Rural  Schools  and  Supplement,  No.  19;  Marketing 
Eggs  from  the  Farm,  No,  30;  Farm  Vegetable  Garden,  No.  17. 


CHAPTER  V 
THE  HOT  LUNCH 

So  many  ridiculous  questions  have  been  asked  and 
statements  made  regarding  the  hot  lunches  served  in  schools 
that  it  is  well  to  ask,  What  is  the  "hot  lunch  idea"?  In 
the  first  place,  it  is  not  serving  lunches  between  meals  during 
the  forenoon  and  afternoon  sessions  of  school,  as  some  have 
imagined.  Neither  is  it  giving  a  course  in  domestic  science. 
The  hot  lunch  idea  is  a  simple  question  of  practical  hygiene. 
Farmers  are  careful  of  their  feed  for  cows,  and  many  farmers 
have  heaters  to  warm  the  water  for  their  cows  to  drink  in 
cold  weather,  moved  by  no  other  consideration  than  finan- 
cial profit.  They  know  that  the  cows  produce  more  butter 
fat  under  these  conditions.  Even  heaters  for  cooking  the  hog 
feed  in  winter  are  employed  as  a  matter  of  business  economy. 
And  yet  some  of  these  same  thrifty  farmers  will  let  their 
children  walk  two  or  three  miles  through  snow  and  cold  to 
school,  eat  a  frozen  lunch  at  noon,  unless  by  good  fortune 
it  has  thawed  out,  and  trudge  home  again  at  night  in  time 
to  do  the  chores  before  supper. 

The  primary  purpose  of  serving  something  hot  at  noon 
to  those  who  carry  lunches  is,  then,  simply  one  of  efficiency. 
Like  the  food  for  the  cattle  and  hogs,  the  hot  lunch  has 
been  found  profitable,  profitable  from  the  standpoint  of 
educational  efficiency  as  well  as  physical  betterment.  The 
boy  or  girl  who  eats  only  a  cold  lunch  day  after  day  is  not 
physically  or  mentally  capable  of  doing  the  work  that  may 
be  expected  of  them. 

Other  advantages  of  the  hot  lunch  plan  are  that  the 
older  students  have  an  opportunity  to  do  some  practical 
plain  cooking  occasionally,  without  interfering  with  their 

7—  97 


98 


INDUSTRIAL  WORK  FOR  GIRLS 


school  work.  The  assuming  of  responsibility  for  preparing 
the  hot  dish  to  be  served,  the  practice  of  serving  and  of 
table  etiquette,  and  the  study  of  food  principles,  are  all 
valuable  training.  It  should  not  be  thought  for  a  moment 
that  the  whole  meal  is  prepared  at  school.  The  children 
bring  their  lunches  from  home.  One  hot  dish  is  prepared 
for  all  the  students  each  day  during  the  cold  weather. 
Even  if  this  were  nothing  but  a  hot  drink  of  milk  or  cocoa, 
it  would  be  well  worth  while,  but  it  is  entirely  unnecessary 
to  limit  the  dishes  that  can  be  served  to  a  few  of  which  the 
children  will  soon  tire.  The  kinds  of  prepared  food  which 
one  can  carry  in  a  lunch  basket  are  limited.  The  hot  dish 
gives  a  variety  and  increases  the  nutritive  value  of  the  lunch. 
The  equipment  for  serving  hot  lunches  need  not  be 
extensive.  A  cupboard  with  doors,  made  by  the  .older  boys 
of  the  school,  provides  a  place  for  dishes,  cooking  utensils 
and  supplies.  The  one  shown  in  the  picture  is  similar 
to  several  others  that  were  made  out  of  dry  goods  boxes. 


Figure  55.  Equipment  for  the  hot  lunch.  Photograph  taken  in  a  rural  school. 
Note  the  improvised  cupboard  made  out  of  a  dry  goods  box  and  covered 
yrith  curtain. 


THE  HOT  LUNCH  99 

Shelves  were  put  in  and  curtains  hung  over  the  front.  Doors 
would  be  more  sanitary  than  curtains,  however.  Each 
child  is  asked  to  bring  a  cup,  saucer,  fork  and  spoon.  These 
utensils  remain  during  the  hot  lunch  season,  from  November 
to  April.  It  is  also  desirable,  but  not  necessary,-  that  each 
child  bring  two  napkins — one  to  be  used  as  a  tablecloth 
on  the  desk.  Paper  napkins  may  be  purchased  out  of  a 
general  fund,  if  desirable.  Linen  ones  should  be  washed 
as  often  as  necessary  or  exchanged  for  clean  ones  at  home. 
Coffee  cans  or  fruit  jars  can  be  obtained  in  which  to  keep 
the  staple  supplies,  as  flour,  sugar,  salt,  oatmeal,  cornmeal, 
rice,  etc. 

The  question  of  supplies  is  often  raised.  How  are  the 
materials  used  by  the  students  obtained?  Sometimes  a  levy 
of  ten  cents  each  is  made  for  the  purchase  of  groceries.  We 
have  found  a  more  satisfactory  way  in  which  the  students 
bring  practically  all  the  supplies  from  home.  This  is  not 
difficult,  as  they  can  furnish  large  or  small  quantities — a 
quart  of  milk  or  one  cupful,  one  potato  or  half  a  dozen.  If 
a  soup  or  some  dish  requiring  milk  is  made,  it  is  well  to  let 
one  family  furnish  all  that  is  needed  for  that  day.  It  will 
not  bring  anything  more  until  its  turn  comes  again.  This 
matter  can  easily  be  regulated  by  the  teacher,  and  a  record 
kept.  If  baked  potatoes  were  the  dish  to  be  served,  each 
child  could  select  from  home  a  potato  and  bring  it  to  school 
the  da/  it  is  to  be  used.  A  few  cents  each  will  provide  the 
general  supplies  referred  to  above,  or  even  they  may  be 
brought  from  the  homes.  There  will  be  no  difficulty  in 
getting  all  the  supplies,  if  the  teacher  is  tactful  and  has 
the  co-operation  of  the  mothers.  There  may  be  home  con- 
ditions in  the  community  where  it  would  be  wise  to  have 
the  children  from  some  homes  bring  only  vegetables.  Other 
families  could  furnish  the  milk,  butter,  eggs,  meal,  etc.  Plans 


100  INDUSTRIAL  WORK  FOR  GIRLS 

should  be  made  and  the  dish  selected  two  or  three  days  before 
it  is  to  be  served.  As  far  as  possible  let  the  students  make 
the  selections.  Two  or  three  can  be  suggested  by  the  teacher 
and  one  chosen.  Change  enough  should  be  made  to  vary 
the  nutrients  from  day  to  day. 

Housekeepers,  or  monitors,  should  be  selected  from 
the  older  boys  and  girls  to  serve  for  one  week.  Two  are 
enough  at  once.  In  case  the  school  is  large,  one  or  two  more 
may  be  selected  to  help  serve  and  to  wash  the  dishes.  These 
students  are  responsible,  but  the  teacher  should  assist  and 
encourage  them.  The  necessary  preparations  are  made  in 
the  morning^  before  school  and  at  recess.  One  of  the  house- 
keepers can  quietly  get  up  and  start  the  stove  at  whatever 
time  the  dish  needs  to  be  put  on  to  have  it  ready  by  noon. 
The  rest  of  the  students  will  soon  pay  no  more  attention  to 
this  than  to  any  other  schoolroom  activity  to  which  they  are 
accustomed.  Little,  if  any,  time  needs  to  be  taken  to  watch 
the  heating  or  cooking  process. 

As  soon  as  dismissed,  the  pupils  should  take  their  seats 
for  lunch.  The  monitors  should  then  pass  the  napkins,  the 
spoons  or  forks,  and  the  dinner  pails  from  home.  The  hot 
dish  made  in  school  is  then  served  to  each,  and  eaten  with  the 
lunch  from  the  pails.  The  teacher  should  always  sit  and 
eat  with  the  pupils.  Encourage  pleasant  conversation. 
Sometimes  she-  could  have  them  discuss  what  they  have  for 
lunch  and  its  uses.  Nutrition,  balanced  diets,  sanitation, 
good  health,  games  for  the  playground,  are  suggestive  topics 
for  conversation.  Table  manners  such  as  are  found  in  the 
best  homes  should  prevail.  At  least  twenty  minutes  should 
be  used  in  eating  the  noon  lunch,  and,  if  persons  leave  before 
that  time,  they  should  ask  to  be  excused,  as  at  any  other 
table.  Lunch  plans  for  the  next  day  are  made.  The  lessons 


THE  HOT  LUNCH  '  Idf 

to  be  learned  from  these  sources  are  well  worth  the  little 
extra  work  required  to  conduct  the  hot  lunches. 

Dishwashing  follows  the  lunch,  and  is  done  by  the  house- 
keepers, changing  each  week.  The  water  should  be  heated 
for  this  while  the  lunch  is  being  eaten.  The  monitors  re- 
move the  dishes,  but  each  student  is  responsible  for  the 
crumbs  near  his  desk.  The  dishes  are  washed,  rinsed,  wiped 
and  put  in  their  proper  places  in  the  cupboard.  See  that 
the  mixing  dishes  are  kept  very  clean.  As  soon  as  students 
get  used  to  the  routine  of  preparing,  serving  and  dishwashing, 
very  little  time  will  be  consumed  in  these  tasks.  The  boys 
should  take  their  turns  as  well  as  the  girls.  The  experience 
will  be  valuable  to  them  also. 

The  equipment  here  given  is  regarded  as  suitable  and 
sufficient.  It  costs  less  than  ten  dollars  and  will  last  for 
years.  The  equipment  may  be  used  for  farmers'  club  meet- 
ings, institutes,  and  other  social  gatherings  at  the  school. 
Any  live  school  can  raise  enough  money  to  purchase  the 
outfit  if  it  is  not  furnished  by  the  district. 

THE  EQUIPMENT 

1  double  burner  blue  flame  kero-        cover  to  fit. 


sene  stove, 
single  burner  oven, 
twelve-quart  dish  pan. 
draining  pan. 
set  of  six  muffin  tins, 
three-pint  mixing  bowl. 


wooden  mixing  spoon. 

ladle. 

tablespoon  (metal). 

teaspoon  (metal). 

kitchen  knife. 

fork. 


small  bowl.  1  Dover  egg  beater. 

cup  (St.  Dennis).  1  strainer. 

dinner  plate.  1  paring  knife. 

2  pie  tins  (1  large,  1  small).  1  case  knife. 

2  asbestos  mats.  1  graduated  measuring  cup. 

1  eight-quart  granite  kettle.  1  eight-inch  omelet  pan  or  skillet. 

GENERAL  DIRECTIONS 

Use  level  measures  for  both  dry  and  liquid  materials. 
If  you  wish  to  measure  a  spoonful  of  flour,  dip  a  spoon  into 


102  '  ItfDVSTRIAL  WORK  FOR  GIRL& 

the  flour  and  level  off  with  the  back  of  a  case  knife.  Starting 
at  the  handle,  push  the  surplus  off  as  the  knife  moves  toward 
the  end  of  the  spoon.  Fill  a  cup  or  large  measure  by  lifting 
the  material  into  it  with  a  spoon  or  dish,  then  level  off  with  a 
case  knife.  Filling  a  measure  by  dipping  it  into  the  dry 
material  causes  the  material  to  pack.  Always  look  up  the 
table  of  measures  when  using  a  recipe  from  a  new  book. 
Abbreviations,  measures  and  weights  that  will  be  used  in 
carrying  out  the  hot  lunch  idea  are  here  given. 

Abbreviations 

t  =  teaspoonf  ul ;  T  =  tablespoonf  ul ;  c  =  cupful ;  pt .  =  pint ; 
qt.  =quart;  Ib.  =pound. 

Measures 

4  teaspoonf  uls  make  1  tablespoonf  ul;  16  tablespoonf  uls  makes  1 
cupful;  12  tablespoonf  uls  of  dry  materials,  as  rice  and  rolled  oats, 
make  1  cupful;  2  cupfuls  make  one  pint;  2  pints  make  1  quart;  4  quarts 
make  1  gallon. 

SAUCES  AND  THICKENING  FOR  CREAM  SOUPS 
Thin  Sauce  Medium  Sauce 

1  T  of  fat  2  T  of  fat 

1  T  of  flour  2  T  of  flour 

1  c  of  milk  (usually)  1  c  of  milk  or  other  liquid 

Y±  t  of  salt  y±  t  of  salt 

A  dash  of  white  pepper  A  dash  of  white  pepper 

Methods  of  Making  Sauces  or  Thickening  Liquids 

1.  Use  this  method  when  all  ingredients  are  cold  and 
time  must  be  considered.     Place  the  flour  and  fat  in  a  pan 
over  the  fire.     Stir  with  a  wooden  spoon  as  the  butter 
melts,  and  do  not  allow  it  to  burn.     A  wooden  spoon  is  acid- 
proof,  noiseless  and  does  not  become  hot.     When  frothy, 
add  the  liquid.     Stir  constantly  and  rapidly  while  the  sauce 
cooks.      It  is  cooked  when  it  does  not  taste  of  raw  flour. 
Season. 

2.  Use  this  method  when  liquid  to  be  thickened  is 
warm.     Mix  the  flour  and  fat  in  a  cup  or  bowl.     With  the 


THE  HOT  LUNCH  103 

knife  place  the  mixture  of  flour  and  fat  on  the  end  of  wooden 
spoon  and  stir  it  into  the  liquid.  It  is  cooked  when  it  does 
not  taste  of  raw  flour.  Season. 

3.  Use  this  method  when  a  small  amount  of  fat  is  used. 
To  the  flour  add  enough  of  the  cold  liquid  to  make  a  smooth 
batter.  Pour  the  batter  into  the  boiling  liquid.  It  is 
cooked  when  is  does  not  taste  of  raw  flour.  Add  fat  and 
seasoning. 

Sauces  and  cream  soups  must  be  smooth  and  not  lumpy. 
Should  either  show  signs  of  lumping,  remove  from  the  fire 
immediately  and  beat  the  mixture  with  the  Dover  beater 
until  smooth.  Return  to  the  fire,  stirring  constantly  and 
cook  until  done.  The  thin  sauce  is  suitable  for  creamed 
potatoes,  macaroni,  toast  and  rice.  The  medium  sauce  is 
used  with  vegetables  less  starchy  than  potatoes,  and  with 
fish.  A  cupful  of  sauce  is  needed  for  a  pint  of  diced  vege- 
tables when  preparing  a  creamed  dish.  The  medium  sauce 
is  also  used  in  making  creamed  soups.  An  equal  amount 
of  the  liquid  in  which  the  vegetable  is  cooked  is  added 
to  the  sauce.  In  some  cases  the  vegetables  are  pressed 
through  a  sieve  and  added.  Sauces  can  be  kept  warm,  if 
covered  tight  and  placed  in  a  pan  of  hot  water. 

SUGGESTIVE  DISHES  FOR  HOT  LUNCHES 

Fifty  dishes  that  have  been  prepared  and  served  in  rural 
schools  are  given.  Select  from  them. 

Note:  The  time  for  each  recipe  is  an  estimate  of  the  time  required  to  cook  it 
with  reasonably  good  heat,  not  to  prepare  it.  Salt  is  added  as  directed  in  cooking 
cereals  and  vegetables  when  boiling  either.  Sauces  are  seasoned  except  when 
otherwise  directed,  as  in  creamed  chipped  beef.  If  recipes  requiring  a  long  time  are 
chosen,  there  should  be  some  place  to  heat  them  on  the  regular  stove  to  save  oil. 
A  homemade  fireless  cooker  should  be  used  if  possible  as  it  will  save  both  time 
and  fuel.  Where  an  oil  stove  only  can  be  used,  do  not  select  the  recipes  that  re- 
quire more  than  a  short  time. 

Carbohydrates  and  protein  are  discussed  as  fully  as  space 
will  permit  in  Chapter  IV.  This  discussion  should  be  con- 


104  INDUSTRIAL  WORK  FOR  GIRLS 

suited  frequently  for  the  preparation  of  vegetables,  cereals 
and  other  foods  used  in  the  laboratory  work  in  preparing 
hot  lunch  dishes. 

VEGETABLES 

1—  Baked  Potatoes.    Time:  V/±  hours. 

Recipe—  Directions:     Wash    and    put 

P0tat°  potatoes  to  bake  on  grate  in  hot 
oven  an  hour  and  fifteen  minutes 
before  time  to  serve.  Turn  potatoes  occasionally  while 
baking.  They  are  baked,  if  they  feel  soft  when  pressed 
between  the  hands.  If  not  ready  to  serve  at  once,  burst  or 
prick  with  fork  the  skin  of  each  potato,  so  that  the  steam  may 
escape.  Otherwise  the  potatoes  become  soggy.  Place  in 
a  clean  towel  to  keep  warm. 

2  —  Mashed  Potatoes.    Time:  46  minutes 

Recipe  —  Directions:  Prepare  and  cook 

«mcehJoUtmmiikedP°tat0eS         ^  directed  for  vegetables.     Cut 
2  T  butter  in  halves  only.    Potatoes  usually 

M  t  white  pepper  cook  in  thirty  minutes.      When 

tender,    drain   well,    cover   with 

several  thicknesses  of  cloth  and  let  stand  for  a  minute  or 
two  to  allow  some  of  the  steam  to  escape.  In  the  mean- 
time put  the  milk  on  to  heat.  Mash  smooth  with  a  wooden 
potato  masher.  Add  butter,  salt,  and  pepper  and  enough 
of  the  hot  milk  to  make  light.  Beat  until  white.  This 
amount  will  serve  eight  to  ten  pupils. 

3  —  Creamed  Potatoes.    Time:  45  minutes. 

Recipe  —  Directions:  Make  a  thin  sauce 

™m  potatoes  of  milk,  fat,  and  flour  and  add  a 


1  T  fat  pint  of  boiled  diced  potatoes.  See 

1  V  t  salt  sauces  and  cooking  vegetables. 

Pepper  Enough  to  serve  four  pupils, 


THE  HOT  LUNCH  105 

4  —  Scalloped  Potatoes.    Time:  \y±  hours. 

Recipe—  Directions:    Wash,  pare  and 

t  ™cdmifkP°1  cut  P^atoes  in  one  eighth  inch 

1  T  salt  slices  into  a  buttered  baking  dish. 

2  T  flour61*  On  each  laver  °f  potatoes  sprinkle 
Pepper  to  taste                       flour,  salt,  and  pepper,  and  dot 

with  bits  of  butter.  Continue  until  all  are  used.  Pour 
hot  milk  over  the  potatoes,  but  not  enough  to  cover  the  top 
layers.  Place  in  a  hot  oven  and  bake,  covered  for  the  first 
half  hour,  but  uncover  to  allow  to  brown.  Bake  for  another 
half  hour  or  until  tender  when  tried.  Add  more  milk,  if 
the  potatoes  appear  dry.  Serve  hot.  This  amount  will 
serve  six  pupils. 

5—  Mashed  Turnips.    Time:  2  hours. 

Recipe  —  Directions:  Prepare  and  cook 

lfcehoUtmmilked  tUmiP  the  turnip  as  for  the  other  vege- 

1  T  butter  tables.   Mash.   Add  milk,  butter 

Sdttotarff  and     eer-     This  amount 


serve  five  or  six  pupils. 

6—  Buttered  Beets.    Time:  3  to  4  hours. 

Recipe—  Directions:      Wash  and  put 

IVo  c  diced  beets  ,  i         -^i       i  •  T-\ 

IT  butter  beets  to  cook  with  skins.     Do 

H  c  salt  not  cut  the  roots  of  beets,  be- 

Dfpepper  cause  in  the  process  of  cooking 

they  bleed  too  much  and  spoil  the  color  and  flavor.  Boil 
from  two  to  four  hours.  It  is  wise  to  wash  the  beets,  and 
put  the  required  amount  of  water  in  kettle  the  day  before. 
Whoever  tends  the  fire  can  put  the  kettle  on,  so  that  the 
beets  can  be  put  on  about  eight  o'clock.  Keep  them  boil- 
ing continually.  When  tender,  drain  and  cover  with  cold 
water  for  a  minute  or  two.  Drain  again.  Remove  skins. 
Dice,  add  butter,  salt  and  pepper.  Two  medium  sized 


106  INDUSTRIAL  WORK  FOR  GIRLS 

beets  diced  amount  to  about  one  and  one  hajf  cupfuls. 
This  amount  is  enough  to  serve  three  pupils. 

7—  Baked  Hubbard  Squash.    Time:  1^  hours. 

Recipe—  Directions  :      Wash  and  dry. 

One  piece  of  squash  about  /-,    ,    .  i                 i     •    ,      ,    i 

4^  inches  by  2^  inches  Cut  the  scluash  mto  halves>  re~ 

for  each  person  move  the  seeds  and  stringy  por- 

tion, cut  into  pieces  and  place  in  hot  oven  either  in  a  pan  or 
on  grate  of  oven.  If  the  oven  does  not  bake  evenly,  change 
pieces  around.  After  an  hour  sprinkle  with  salt,  and  bake 
another  half  hour.  Serve  hot  with  butter,  salt  -and  pepper. 

8—  Stewed  Tomatoes.    Time:  15  minutes. 

Recipe—  Directions:  Heat  tomato,  add 

l^c  tcTsf^bread  or  butter,  salt,  pepper  and  bread  or 

1  c  soda  crackers  crackers.      Break  slices  of  stale 

%  i  salt  Gr  bread  or  crackers  into  half-inch 

Pepper  to  taste  pieces.    Serve  hot.    This  amount 

will  serve  ten  to  twelve  pupils. 

9  —  Scalloped  Corn.    Time:  35  minutes. 

Recipe  —  Directions  :    To  the  seasoned 

i  Tmediumwhite  sauce          medium  white  sauce  add  corn, 

\l/2  T  sugar  sugar  and  salt.    Butter  the  bak- 

3  T  butter  mS    dish.     Cover    the    bottom 

M  c  bread  crumbs  with  a  layer  of  corn  and  sauce. 

Cover  this  wkh  a  layer  of  buttered  bread  crumbs.     Use  stale 

bread  crumbs.     Place  butter  and  crumbs  in  pan  on  stove, 

and  stir  until  butter  is  melted.     Continue  until  all  is  used. 

Have  crumbs  over  the  top.     Bake  in  a  medium  oven  for 

twenty-five  minutes.     This  amount  will  serve  eight  pupils. 

10  —  Creamed  Garbage.    Time:  1  hour. 

Recipe  —  Directions:    Prepare  cabbage 


and  cook  in  J  ust  enouSh  Water  to 


cover.     Toward   the   last   allow 
the  water  to  boil  down  to  about  one  half  a  cupful.     Pour 


THE  HOT  LUNCH  107 

cabbage  and  liquid  into  sauce.     Add  more  seasoning,  if  re- 
quired.    This  amount  will  serve  six  to  eight  pupils. 

11—  Creamed  Cabbage  with  Cheese.    Time:  1  hour. 
Recipe  —  Directions:  Prepare  and  cook 

IfmSm^auce  the  cabbage  as  in  Number  10. 

K  to  l/2  c  grated  cheese  Make  sauce  and  to  it  add  the 
grated  cheese.  Use  stale  cheese,  as  it  is  more  easily  grated. 
This  amount  will  serve  six  to  eight  pupils. 

12—  Creamed  Carrots.    Time:  30  minutes. 
Recipe—  Directions:  Prepare  carrots  as 


ducted  for  vegetables.  Cook  for 


%  i  sugar  thirty   minutes   in   just   enough 

boiling  water  to  cover.  Allow  the  water  to  boil  down 
toward  the  last.  Turn  carrots  and  the  liquid  they  are 
cooked  in  into  the  white  sauce.  Add  sugar.  Serve.  This 
amount  will  serve  five  pupils. 

13—  Creamed  Peas.    Time:  30  minutes. 

Recipe  —  Directions  :    At  least  an  hour 

1  pi.  meTium^auce  before  usinS  the  Peas  °Pen  and 

H  t  salt  empty  the  can  at  once.     While 

making  the  sauce  according  to 
directions  for  sauces,  allow  the 

peas  to  heat.      Add  the  salt,  sugar  and  pepper  to  peas. 

Pour  the  peas  into  white  sauce.     Mix  and  serve  hot.     This 

amount  will  serve  eight  pupils. 

14—  Creamed  Corn.    Time:  20  minutes. 

Recipe—  Directions  :  Make  a  thin  white 

1  pt.  SslcT  sauce  by  first  method  as  directed 

1  1  sugar  in  sauces.     Open  a  can  of  corn 

and   empty   it   an   hour   before 

time  to  use.  To  do  so  will  improve  the  flavor.  Heat  the 
corn,  if  necessary,  and  add  a  little  water  to  keep  from  burn- 


108  INDUSTRIAL  WORK  FOR  GIRLS 

ing.     Pour  the  corn  into  sauce,  add  sugar,  and  salt,  and 

pepper  to  taste.     This  amount  will  serve  eight  or  nine  pupils. 

15— Baked  Beans.    Time:  10  to  12  hours 

Recipe—  Directions :   Pick  over  beans, 

1  pt.  beans  .-  ,         ,  .  ,  , 
3  £  sait                                  if  necessary,  and  soak  over  night 

M  t  soda  in  two  or  three  times  as  much 

2  sUcef^t  pork  water.     In  the  morning  put  to 
1 1  molasses  (scant)  cook  in  cold  water  to  cover,  add- 
ing two  teaspoonf  uls  of  salt  and  the  soda.     Let  boil  ten  min- 
utes, drain,  rinse  with  cold  water  and  drain  again.     Cut 
pork,  about  one  quarter  of  a  pound,  into  half-inch  cubes. 
Put  part  of  pork  in  the  bottom  of  the  jar  and  the  balance 
nearer  the  top  after  most  of  the  beans  are  in  the  jar,  add 
sugar,  molasses  and  salt,  unless  pork  is  very  salty.      Cover 
with  boilirig  water.     Bake  in  a  slow  oven  the  balance  of  the 
day,  and  from  early  next  morning  continue  baking  them  until 
noon.     A  regular  bean  pot  or  crock  with  a  plate  to  cover  it 
is  used.     Cook  covered  and  the  last  half  hour,  uncover  to 
brown.      Beans   should   cook   slowly  from   ten   to   twelve 
hours.     If  all  the  water  is  absorbed  before  they  are  cooked, 
add  boiling  water,  but  not  enough  to  cover.     This  amount 
will  serve  eight  to  ten  pupils. 

CEREALS 

16— Rice  Gruel.    Time:  V/%  hours. 
Recipe—  Directions:      When  washed, 

\Y2  cToiling  water  cook  the  rice  as  directed  for  ce- 

1  c  of  milk  reals.     After  the  first  ten  minutes, 

cook  covered  in  improvised 

double  boiler  for  one  and  one  half  hours.  About  fifteen 
or  twenty  minutes  before  the  time  to  serve  add  the  milk, 
and  cover.  Leave  pan  or  kettle  containing  gruel  in  pan  of 
boiling  water.  Add  salt  and  serve  hot.  This  amount 
will  serve  one  and  one  half  pupils. 


THE  HOT  LUNCH  109 

17—  Boiled  Rice  with  Butter.     Time:  2  to  3  hours. 

Recipe—  Directions  :  Clean,  wash,  and 

1  T  salt  drop  rice  into  boiling  salted 

4  c  water  water.  Cook  for  two  or  three 

hours  as  directed  for  cereals.     If  steam  escapes,  more  boiling 

water  must  be  added,  if  rice  tasted  raw  when  cooked  dry. 

Serve   with   butter,    salt   and   pepper.     This   amount   will 

serve  eight  pupils. 

18—  Boiled  Rice.    Time:  2  to  3  hours. 

Recipe—  Directions  :    Cook  as  directed 

1  ^i™  in  Number  17.      Heat  the  milk 

1  T  salt  a  little  or  just  keep  it  in  the  room 

*c  boiling  water  so  that  it  will  not  be  cold.    Keep 

it  covered  to  protect  it  from  dust.     Serve  rice  hot  with 

milk  and  sugar.     This  amount  will  serve  eight  to  ten  pupils. 

19  —  Steamed  Rice  with  Raisins,  Milk  and  Sugar.    Time:  2  to  3  hours. 

Recipe—  Directions:  Cook  the  rice  for 

3  c  bailing  water  ten  minutes,  using  three  cupfuls 

1  qt.  milk  of  salted  water,  then  add  sugar 

1  T  sugar  anc^  one  cupf  ul  °f  milk  an<^  co°k 

Yi  c  raisins  for  two  or  three  hours  as  directed 

for  cereals.     Serve  with  milk  and  sugar.     This  amount  will 
serve  nine  or  ten  pupils. 

20  —  Macaroni  with  Tomato  Sauce.    Time:  2  hours. 
Recipe—  Directions:     Cook  macaroni 

as  in  Number  21.    With  strained 


to 
1  T  flour  tomato,  flour  and  butter  make  a 

y±  t  salt  Gr  sauce  and  season  it  as  directed 

A  dash  of  pepper  for  sauces.      Pour  the  macaroni 

into  sauce,  heat  for  a  minute  or  two  so  that  macaroni  will  be 

hot.     Serve.     This  amount  will  serve  seven  or  eight  pupils. 


110  INDUSTRIAL  WORK  FOR  GIRLS 

21  —  Creamed  Macaroni  with  Cheese.    Time:  2  hours. 

Recipe—  Directions  :    Break  the  maca- 

%  pkg.  macaroni  .   •    ,  j  ,     -,f  •     , 

1  c  milk  rom  m^°  one  anc*  one  half  inch 

1  T  butter  lengths.     Cook  same  as  rice,  in 

V  t  salt^  ^wo  and  one  nanC  quarts  of  boiling 

A  dash  of  white  pepper  water  to  which  two  and  one  half 

tablespoonfuls  of  salt  have  been 

added.  Cook  for  two  hours.  Drain  well,  and  cover  with 
cold  water  and  drain  again.  Make  white  sauce  with  the 
flour,  fat  and  milk.  Season,  add  grated  cheese  and  maca- 
roni. Cover  and  place  in  pan  of  hot  water  to  keep  hot. 
This  amount  is  enough  for  seven  or  eight  pupils. 

22  —  Cornmeal  Mush.    Time:  3  hours. 

Recipe  —  Directions  :    Pour  boiling 

water  into  kettle-      Put  salt  into 


1  c  cold  water  or  it.     Make  the  cornmeal  and  cold 

1  c  cornmeal  water  or  the  cornmeal  and  milk 

1  1  salt  into  a  smooth  batter.     Stir  while 

pouring  this  into  the  boiling  salted  water.     Continue  cooking 

it  for  two  or  three  hours  as  directed  for  cereals.     Serve  with 

milk  and  sugar.     This  amount  will  serve  ten  or  twelve 

pupils. 

23—  Oatmeal  Mush.    Time:  6  to  10  hours. 

Recipe—  Directions  :    Cook  as  directed 

1  c  rolled  oats  m  cooking  cereals.     Start  cook- 

3  c  boiling  water  ing  at  noon  of  the  preceding  day. 

iy2T  salt  Cook  during  afternoon.     Set  ves- 

sel where  it  will  keep  warm  over  night  and  continue  cook- 
ing the  -following  forenoon.  Serve  with  milk  and  sugar. 
This  amount  will  serve  six  to  eight  pupils. 


THE  HOT  LUNCH  111 

24— Rolled  Oats  with  Dates  or  Bananas.    Time:  4  to  7  hours. 
Recipe —  Directions :    Cook  rolled  oats 

^Numbe^f  °at8  aS  ln       as  d  i  r  e  c  t  e  d  in-  Number  23. 
%  c  pitted  dates  or  Shortly  before  serving  add  the 

3  bananas  dateg     wWch     are     begt     cut     ^ 

fourths.     Serve   with   milk   and 

sugar.  If  bananas  are  used,  peel,  slice  into  a  dish  and 
sprinkle  with  sugar  to  prevent  discoloration.  Cover  dish 
until  ready  to  serve.  To  each  service  of  rolled  oats  add  two 
tablespoonfuls  of  bananas. 

SOUPS  AND  BEVERAGES 
25— Barley  Soup.    Time:  10  to  12  hours. 

Recipe —  Directions :    Cook  the  barley 

£  bSnKJS;  ten  to  twelve  hours  according  to 

1 1  salt  directions    for    cooking    cereals. 

Add  barley  to  reheated  broth  from  Number  26  or  other 

broth  made  for  that  purpose.     This  amount  is  enough  for 

eight  pupils. 

26— Beef  Broth.    Time:  4  to  5  hours. 

Recipe —  Directions :    Make  broth  the 

tfe™atandb°ne       day  before  serving.     Bone  con- 
2 1  salt  tains    nourishment    and    flavor 

3  PT6PePa™  diced  onions,    which    improves    the    soup.     A 

carrots,    parsnips    and    shin  or  shank  of  beef  (often  spok- 

4  TUbaconEfSat  en  of  as  a  SOUP  bone)  containing 

equal  amounts  of  lean  meat  and 

bone  is  best.  Saw  bone,  and  cut  meat  into  small  pieces. 
Put  bone,  meat  and  cold  water  into  a  kettle  with  a  tight 
fitting  cover.  The  water  ought  to  cover  the  meat  and  the 
bone  one  inch  deep.  Add  one  half  of  the  salt,  the  pepper- 
corns, and,  if  desired,  one  third  that  amount  of  whole  all- 
spice. Heat  contents  of  kettle  slowly  and  simmer  four 


112  INDUSTRIAL  WORK  FOR  GIRLS 

or  more  hours.  In  some  hot  bacon  fat  in  a  spider  cook  the 
diced  vegetables  until  brown.  Put  browned  vegetables  in 
soup  kettle,  also  the  small  amount  of  water  with  which  the 
spider  is  rinsed.  Add  remainder  of  salt.  Simmer  half  an 
hour.  The  browned  vegetables  are  used  to  add  flavor  and 
color  to  the  broth.  Pour  broth  through  a  strainer  into  large 
bowl  or  pan.  Place  bone,  meat,  and  vegetables  in  other 
utensils.  After  rinsing  kettle,  pour  broth  into  it.  Cover 
kettle  with  cloth  to  keep  dust  out  and  let  broth  cool.  There 
will  be  about  three  quarts  of  stock  or  broth.  The  next  day 
remove  fat  from  the  top  and  reheat.  Serve  each  pupil  with 
one  half  or  three  fourths  cupful  of  broth.  Cover  meat  with  a 
clean  cloth  to  keep  the  dust  out  and  keep  in  a  cool  place  until 
it  is  used. 

27— Beef  Broth  with  Rice.    Time:  4  to  5  hours. 

Recipe—  Directions :    Prepare  soup 

jfViSt  stock  as  directed  in  Number  26. 

1  c  boiling  water  Cook  rice  for  two  or  three  hours 

in  boiling  salted  water,  as  directed 

in  cooking  cereals.  When  cooked,  drain  well  and  add  to 
soup  stock.  This  amount  will  serve  two  pupils. 

28 — Cream  of  Cabbage.    Time:  1  hour. 

Recipe —  Directions :  Remove  the  wilt- 

1  ptthcabbTgee  ed  or  very  green  leaves  from  the 

cabbage.    Cut  into  medium-sized 

pieces  enough  to  fill  a  pint  measure  or  a  cup  twice.  Wash 
and  put  to  cook  as  directed  for  vegetables.  Cook  uncovered 
for  one  hour.  Add  enough  water  to  liquid  in  which  the  cab- 
bage is  cooked  to  make  one  cupful  and  pour  it  into  the 
white  sauce.  Serve  hot.  This  amount  serves  four  pupils. 


THE  HOT  LUNCH  113 


29—  Pea  Soup.     Time:  10  to  12  hours. 

Recipe—  Directions  :    If  necessary  pick 

yea  over'      Soak  in  one  <luart  of  water 


5  c  water  over    night.     In     the     morning 

2tsaTt  place  peas,  soda,  and  one  tea- 

spoonful  of  salt  in  kettle  with 

enough  cold  water  to  cover.  Boil  for  ten  minutes,  drain, 
rinse  and  drain  again.  Add  pork  cut  in  half  -inch  cubes, 
one  teaspoonful  of  salt  and  five  cupfuls  of  cold  water,  cover 
and  allow  to  simmer  all  day  and  the  next  forenoon.  If  too 
strong,  add  more  water  about  half  an  hour  before  lunch  time. 
Season  with  salt  and  pepper  to  taste.  This  amount  is  enough 
to  serve  a  dozen  pupils. 

30  —  Cream  of  Celery.     Time:  40  minutes. 

Recipe  —  Directions:    Cut    into    inch 

lj|  c  bomngr  water  Pieces  the  coarse  Parts  of  celeiT 

M  t  salt  after    it    has    been    thoroughly 

cleaned.     Put  to  cook  in  boiling 

salted  water.  Keep  covered  with  water,  and  boil  until 
tender,  about  thirty  minutes.  Press  through  a  sieve,  add 
enough  boiling  water  to  pulp,  and  of  liquid  to  make  one 
and  one  half  cupfuls.  Combine  with  sauce.  Serve  hot. 
This  amount  will  serve  five  pupils. 

31  —  Vermicelli  Soup.     Time:  4  to  5  hours. 

Recipe—  Directions:    Make    required 

\il  v™rmLdlf  k  amount  of  meat  stock,  as  directed 

M  t  salt  in  Number  26.     Break  vermicelli 

into  inch  lengths  and  cook  for 

one  and  one  half  hours  in  salty  water.  Drain.  Cover  with 
cold  water,  drain  again,  and  place  in  broth.  Serve  hot. 

7— 


114  INDUSTRIAL  WORK  FOR  GIRLS 

32— Vegetable  Soup.    Time:  25  minutes. 

Recipe—  Directions:  Use  vegetables  in 

Carrots  equal  amounts  or  lessen  or  omit 

Parsnips  any  not   desired.     Prepare   and 

cook  as  directed  for  vegetables. 

Allow  half  a  cupful  of  diced  vegetables  to  a  pupil.  To  soup 
stock  left  from  Number  26,  add  from  one  third  to  one  half 
as  much  vegetable  stock,  the  liquid  in  which  the  vegetables 
are  cooked.  Serve  hot.  Three  quarters  of  a  cupful  to  a 
pupil. 

33 — Cream  of  Peas.    Time:  30  minutes. 

Recipe —  Directions:     An  hour  before 

1  pt.  canned  peas 

lf$t  salt  they  are  wanted,  open  and  empty 

3  c  boiling  water  at  once  a  can  of  peas<     Mash  the 
3  c  medium  white  sauce  .     ... 

Pepper  to  taste  peas.     Add    the    boiling    water 

and  salt.  Make  the  white  sauce  according  to  directions  in 
thickening  sauces  for  soups.  Combine  mashed  peas  and 
sauce  immediately  before  serving.  This  amount  will  serve 
ten  to  twelve  pupils. 

34— Bean  Soup.    Time:  10  to  12  hours. 
See  Pea  Soup,  Number  29.     Use  the  same  amounts  and 
make  in  the  same  way. 

35 — Cream  of  Tomato  Soup.    Time:  16  minutes. 
Recipe—  Directions:  Thicken  the  milk 

y2  c  miikned  tomat°  with  flour  and  butter  and  add 

2  t  butter  seasoning.    Heat  tomato  and  add 
\^  tfl°^  enough  soda  so  that  the  milk  does 
A  dash  of  white  pepper           not  curdle  when  small  amounts 

of  each  are  combined.  When  ready  to  serve  pour  heated 
tomato  into  the  thickened  milk.  Stir  while  pouring.  This 
amount  will  serve  one  pupil. 


THE  HOT  LUNCH  115 

36 — Hot  Milk  and  Bread.     Time:  5  minutes. 
Recipe—  Directions :    Heat  the  milk  in 

Eac0hWp^pat0bringsatPweorSOor    double  boiler  or  an  improvised 

more  slices  of  bread  one,    until   a   thin   tissue   forms 

over  the  top.     Serve  at  once.     Pupils  break  the  bread  into  it. 

37— Cocoa.     Time:  10  minutes. 
Recipe—  Directions:    Heat  the  water 

njcoSoa*  and  mix  the  cocoa  and  susar- 

\YL  i  sugar  Add  some  boiling  water,  making 

a  smooth  paste.     Pour  this  into 

the  boiling  water.  Let  it  simmer  for  five  minutes.  When 
ready  to  serve,  scald  the  milk  and  add  it  to  the  hot  cocoa 
mixture.  Milk  is  more  easily  digested  if  not  boiled.  To 
preserve  the  color  of  the  cocoa,  acid-proof  utensils  must 
be  used.  This  amount  will  serve  one  and  one  third  pupils. 

MEATS 

38 — Meat  Loaf.     Time:  25  minutes. 
Re^e~i  Directions:     Use   the    meat 

O  1 Kq      r)ppf 

2  slices  salt  pork  or  bacon       from  Number  26.     Chop  it  and 

21adrgeeorC3a±u;ggs  the  salt  pork  or  bacon,  add  the 

Y*  t  pepper  crackers,  crumbled  fine,  the  salt 

and  pepper,  and  mix  well.    Moisten  with  left-over  soup  stock 

or  a  little  hot  water  and  butter,  and  add  well  beaten  eggs. 

Shape  into  a  loaf  in  greased  baking  pan.     Bake  until  the  egg 

is  cooked.     This  amount  will  serve  fifteen  to  eighteen  pupils. 

39— Beef  Stew.     Time:  3  to  4  hours. 

Recipe—  Directions:       Start  to    stew 

2qts.wtirbS  early  in  the  morning.     Proceed 

iy2  t  salt  as  for  beef  broth,  brown  part  of 

5*t  bacon  fat  meat  before  stewing  ^  and  keeP 

y<z  c  each  of  diced  onions,     tightly  covered.     Brown  all  the 

pototo'es13^11^8' tUrnipS'     vegetables,  add  them  and  cook 
6  peppercorns  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes  more. 


116  INDUSTRIAL  WORK  FOR  GIRLS 

Thicken  with  flour,  using  the  third  method  of  making  sauces 
and  thickening  soups. 

40— Meat  with  Tomato  Sauce.    Time:  25  minutes. 
Recipe—  Directions:      Make  a  sauce 

'  with  the  t°mato    flour  and  but- 


I  c  strained  tomato 

I 1  butter  ter,    add    seasoning   and    boiled 

Mt  g^  meat  from  Number  26,  and  cut 

spper  to  taste  into    small    pieces.     Cook    until 

meat  is  heated,  stirring  occasionally  to  prevent  from  burning. 
This  amount  will  serve  six  to  eight  pupils. 

41 — Creamed  Chipped  Beef.    Time:  15  minutes. 
Recipe—  Directions:     Cut    beef    into 

small  pieces,  put  it  into  a  small 
dish  that  will  stand  being  heated. 
Cover  with  cold  water  and  heat  slowly.  When  hot,  the 
meat  will  have  soaked  up  half  of  the  water.  Make 
sauce  as  directed  for  sauce,  but  omit  the  salt.  Pour  the 
meat  and  water  in  which  it  has  soaked  into  the  white  sauce. 
Add  salt,  if  required.  This  amount  will  serve  ten  pupils. 
If  desired,  serve  creamed  chipped  beef  with  boiled  rice  as 
prepared  in  Number  17. 

42 — Chop  Suey.    Time:  1*4  hours. 
Recipe—  Directions:      Cook  spaghetti 

1  pkg.  spaghetti  tne  same  as  vermicelli  in  Number 

1  pt.  strained  tomato-  31  and  put  it  into  the  smoking 

2 1  butter  or  bacon  fat  i     .    f   ,    •          •  i  i  i  •> 

i^  t  salt  hot  fat  in  spider  and  brown  it. 

Y%  t  pepper .  Add  the  tomato  and  seasoning. 

Boil  for  two  or  three  minutes. 
Serve  hot.  This  amount  will  serve  eighteen  or  twenty  pupils. 

EGGS 

43 — Creamed  Eggs.     Time:  5  minutes. 

Recipe—  Directions:  Each  pupil  should 

K^white  sauce  bring  a  hard-boiled  egg.    Prepare 


THE  HOT  LUNCH  117 

enough  white  sauce  to  serve  all,  allowing  one  fourth  of  a 
cupful  for  each  pupil. 

44— Soft-Cooked  Eggs.    Time:  8  to  10  minutes. 
Recipe—  Directions :  Place  eggs  in  pan 

1  c^water  °*   boiling   water,    allowing   one 

cupful  to  an  egg.     Cover  and  let 

stand  where  there  is  but  little  heat  for  eight  or  ten  minutes, 
depending  on  how  soft  they  are  desired.     Remove  and  cover 
with  cold  water  for  a  second.     Serve  at  once. 
45 — Scrambled  Eggs.    Time:  3  minutes. 
Recipe —  Directions:       Break  the  re- 

I  fhot  milk  or  hot  water        <luired  number  of  eggs  into  dish 

I 1  bacon  fat  or  butter  and  beat  until  yolks  and  whites 

are  well  mixed.  Stir  while  adding  hot  water  or  milk.  Place 
one  teaspoonf ul  of  bacon  fat  or  butter  in  upper  part  of  double 
boiler,  the  lower  part  being  one  third  full  of  boiling  water. 
When  fat  is  hot,  pour  in  egg  mixture.  As  the  egg  cooks 
near  the  bottom  and  sides  of  pan,  stir  mixture.  When  cooked, 
the  egg  will  be  of  a  soft  creamy  texture.  Allow  one  egg  to 

a  person. 

46 — Egg  Gruel.    Time:  10  minutes. 

Recipe—  Directions :  Beat  the  egg  while 

1  cgmilk  milk  ig  heating.    When  steaming 

1-16  t  salt  hot,  not  boiling,  pour  slowly  over 

beaten   egg.     Continue   beating   while   pouring.     Serve   at 

once.     This  amount  will  serve  two  pupils. 

47— Steamed  Soft  Custard.    Time:  20  to  30  minutes. 

Recipe—  Directions:     Beat  egg  in  a 

I  cggc  aided  milk  bowl   until   the  y°lk  and   white 

I 1  sugar  are  thoroughly  mixed,  and  add 

the  sugar.     Stir  while  adding  the 

scalded  milk.  Pour  mixture  into  a  pail  with  tight  fitting 
cover  or  upper  part  of  a  double  boiler,  and  place  it  in  a  pan 


118  INDUSTRIAL  WORK  FOR  GIRLS 

of  boiling  water.  Keep  water  hot,  but  not  boiling.  Allow  to 
cook  until  you  have  a  smooth  custard  that  will  cut  with  a 
a  knife  and  not  stick  to  it.  This  amount  will  require  cook- 
ing from  twenty  to  thirty  minutes.  For  a  larger  quantity  a 
longer  time  would  be  necessary.  This  will  serve  two  pupils 

48— Baked  Custard.     Time:  25.  to  30  minutes. 
Recipe—  Directions :  Combine  the  same 

}  eg™llk  as  in  Number  47.     Pour  into  the 

1 1  sugar  teacups  and  place  them  in  a  pan 

of  boiling  water.     Place  pan  in 

very  slow  oven.  Bake  thirty  minutes  or  until  the  point  of 
a  paring  knife  will  cut  it  and  come  out  clean.  This  amount 
will  serve  two  pupils. 

FRUITS 

Various  fruit  dishes  may  easily  be  prepared.  '  Apple 
sauce  can  be  made  quickly,  each  student  contributing  one 
or  more  apples.  Dried  fruits,  such  as  apples,  prunes,  apri- 
cots, etc.,  will  require  only  a  small  amount  of  time  in  prep- 
aration and  are  very  palatable  served  hot  with  cold  lunches. 

49— Baked  Apples.    Time:  1^  hours. 

Directions:  Bake  one  apple  for  each  pupil.  Wash  and 
core.  Place  in  a  granite  pan,  put  a  teaspoonful  of  sugar  in 
the  center  of  each  apple  and  pour  enough  water  into  the  dish 
to  cover  the  bottom  of  it.  Bake  until  tender.  Apples  are 
best  if  baked  in  a  very  slow  oven  for  one  and  one  half  hour. 

60 — Apple  Tapioca  Pudding.    Time:  1J^  hours. 
Recipe —  Directions:  Soak  tapioca  over 

loVaTapples  niSht  in  six  cupf uls  of  cold  water. 

1  c  sugar  Pare,  core  and  quarter  the  apples. 

Add  the  apples,  sugar  and  lemon 

juice  to  the  tapioca  when  it  has  cooked  for  fifty  minutes. 
Cook  until  apples  are  tender.  Serve  with  cream.  This 
amount  will  serve  sixteen  to  eighteen  pupils. 


CHAPTER  VI 
INDUSTRIAL  CLUB  WORK 

Garden  and  canning  clubs  have  been  organized  in  nearly 
every  state  in  the  Union.  The  Federal  Government  has 
assisted  the  movement  by  sending  experts  to  various  parts 
of  the  country  and  state  departments  of  agriculture  have  co- 
operated through  their  extension  work.  Mr.  T.  A.  Erickson, 
state  leader  of  boys'  and  girls'  club  work  for  Minnesota, 
gives  five  reasons  why  every  school  district  should  have  one 
or  more  of  these  clubs.  They  are  well  worth  considering. 

1.  To  bring  the  school,  home  and  farm  into  closer  co- 
operation. 

2.  To  encourage  boys  and  girls  to  assist  their  mothers 
in  having  a  good  supply  of  vegetables  and  fruit  for  the  table, 
thus  helping  to  reduce  the  cost  of  living,  and  to  teach  boys 
and  girls  how  to  save  what  is  often  otherwise  wasted. 

3.  To  interest  the  boys  and  girls  in  gardening  and  in 
the  best  methods  of  growing  the  tomato  and  other  standard 
vegetables. 

4.  To  teach  the  best  methods  of  canning  what  is  not 
used  fresh. 

5.  To  provide  a  means  by  which  boys  and  girls  may 
earn  some  money  and  at  the  same  time  learn  many  valuable 
lessons. 

There  are  many  fruits  and  vegetables  that  may  be  grown 
profitably  by  school  girls  in  their  home  gardens.  Toma- 
toes and  strawberries  are  probably  the  most  profitable, 
as  there  is  always  a  ready  market  for  these,  and  the  surplus 
is  easily  canned.  In  fact,  the  tomato  is  popular  on  account 
of  the  canning  that  goes  with  that  club  work,  as  most  of 
the  product  is  sold  as  canned  goods.  Many  girls  have 

119 


120  INDUSTRIAL  WORK  FOR  GIRLS 

entered  the  acre  corn  contests.  Sweet  corn  may  be  substi- 
tuted for  the  field  corn,  if  it  is  preferred  by  the  girls,  and  part 
of  the  crop  canned  in  the  same  manner  as  the  tomatoes. 
In  that  case,  a  full  acre  would  not  be  required  unless  three  or 
four  girls  formed  a  partnership,  and  operated  a  home  can- 
ning outfit  together.  This  outfit  is  discussed  elsewhere. 
Garden  peas  have  been  grown  and  canned  successfully  by 
some  of  the  clubs. 

Insects  and  weeds  are  deadly  enemies  of  garden,  field 
and  orchard,  and  must  be  constantly  guarded  against.  Poor 
seed  also  is  often  responsible  for  small  yields.  It  is  neces- 
sary, therefore,  that  girls,  as  well  as  boys,  make  a  careful 
study  of  all  garden  pests  and  also  learn  how  to  test  their 
seeds  for  purity  and  germination,  if  they  are  to  get  the  best 
results.  A  poultry  contest  and  a  potato  yield  contest  also 
could  be  conducted  with  advantage  by  girls. 

Tomato  growing,  home  canning  and  bread  baking  con- 
tests are  discussed  at  length  in  this  book.  Many  of  the 
other  subjects  are  discussed  in  a  companion  book,  "Indus- 
trial Work  for  Boys."  Consult  bulletins  and  reference  books 
for  further  information  on  organizing  and  conducting  these 
contests  and  such  other  club  work  as  may  be  undertaken. 
TOMATO  CONTEST 

This  has  been  one  of  the  most  popular  and  successful  pro- 
jects in  club  work  and,  where  conditions  are  favorable  for 
tomato  raising,  it  is  strongly  recommended.  A  century  ago 
the  tomato  was  rarely  grown  and  then  only  as  an  ornamental 
plant.  It  was  thought  to  be  poisonous  until  its  food  value 
was  discovered  accidentally.  The  tomato  is  now  one  of  the 
most  valuable  vegetable  crops  in  the  United  States,  and  is 
extensively  grown  in  almost  every  other  country.  No 
other  fruit  or  vegetable  is  so  much  used  for  canning  pur- 
poses. 


INDUSTRIAL  CLUB  WORK  121 

The  young  tomato  plant  is  very  tender  and  must  not  be 
transplanted  until  all  danger  of  frost  is  past.  In  the  north- 
ern states  this  time  will  be  about  the  middle  of  May. 
The  plants  must,  therefore,  be  started  in  window  boxes  or 
hotbeds,  and  transplanted  to  the  garden.  Start  them  about 
six  weeks  before  they  are  to  be  set  out  in  the  open.  There  are 
a  great  many  varieties  of  tomatoes,  but  the  large,  late  kinds 
are  best  for  canning.  The  plants  should  be  set  in  rows  at 
least  four  feet  apart  to  allow  plenty  of  room  for  horse  culti- 
vation and  for  the  development  of  the  plant.  The  distance 
apart  in  the  row  will  depend  upon  the  variety,  as  space 
enough  for  growth  is  necessary.  Tomatoes  thrive  best  in 
a  rich,  sandy  soil  and  require  plenty  of  warm  weather 
during  a  long  growing  season.  They  must  be  kept  free 
from  weeds  and  insects  and  should  not  only  be  cultivated 
often,  but  kept  hoed  close  to  the  plant.  As  soon  as  the  young 
fruit  is  formed,  the  plant  should  be  well  supported  by  staking 
and  tying  or  part  of  the  crop  will  be  spoiled  on  the  damp 
ground.  When  time  to  ripen,  cut  away  the  surplus  branches 
to  let  the  sun  in  and  allow  the  nourishment  that  would 
feed  the  branches  to  go  to  the  green  tomatoes.  Early 
varieties  may  often  be  marketed  fresh  in  small  baskets  at 
handsome  profits,  but  the  individual  or  girls'  club  should 
own  a  home  canning  outfit  and  can  the  main  crop.  Write  to 
the  national  and  state  departments  of  agriculture  for  bulle- 
tins and  information  pertaining  to  the  culture  and  canning 
of  the  tomato.  Farmer's  Bulletin  No.  521  is  good  for  the 
latter. 

HOME  CANNING 

Canning  has  become  very  popular  among  both  boys  and 
girls  during  the  last  few  years,  both  as  home  projects  and  as 
club  work.  As  home  work,  it  is  usually  done  by  the  girls,  but 
as  club  work,  it  is  important  for  both  girls  and  boys.  Fruits, 


122  INDUSTRIAL  WORK  FOR  GIRLS 

vegetables  and  soups  are  canned  and  glass  sealers  and  tin 
cans  are  used  for  containers.  There  is  always  a  good  de- 
mand for  foods  preserved  in  this  way.  The  canning  pro- 
jects supplement  the  fruit  and  vegetable  gardening  work  and 
make  all  profitable. 

There  are  five  general  ways  of  canning  food  stuffs:  the 
intermittent,  or  fractional-sterilization,  method;  cold-water 
method;  vacuum-seal  method;  hot-pack,  or  open-kettle, 
method;  and  the  cold-pack  method. 

The  intermittent  method  is  very  effective,  but  requires 
three  days  to  complete  the  process  and  is  expensive  in  time 
and  fuel.  The  cold-water  method  is  used  with  sour  food 
stuffs,  such  as  gooseberries  and  rhubarb.  The  product  is 
washed  and  sealed  in  cold  water.  In  the  vacuum-seal 
method  a  special  can  is  required.  It  is  successful,  but  has 
not  yet  come  into  general  use. 

The  hot-pack,  or  open-kettle,  method  is  still  the  common 
way  of  canning  in  most  homes.  The  products  are  com- 
pletely cooked  before  packing  in  the  cans  and  sealing. 
The  method  is  a  success  for  fruits,  but  is  a  failure  for  vege- 
tables, and  it  is  always  laborious. 

The  cold-pack  method  is  gradually  displacing  the  hot- 
pack.  It  is  the  method  generally  recommended  for  the 
club  work  and  home  canning  projects.  By  it,  vegetables, 
as  well  as  fruits,  may  be  preserved. 

The  equipment  for  canning  by  the  cold-pack  method 
need  not  be  elaborate.  While  there  are  several  kinds  of 
commercial  outfits  on  the  market,  their  chief  advantage 
over  the  homemade  ones  is  their  convenience.  Homemade 
outfits  may  be  constructed  from  washtubs,  wash  boilers, 
kettles,  milk  cans,  pails,  etc.  Select  an  outfit  that  is  deep 
enough  for  water  to  come  one  inch  above  the  top  of  the  tallest 
jar.  This  type  of  cooker  is  called  a  hot  water  bath  outfit. 


INDUSTRIAL  CLUB  WORK 


123 


It  should  be  provided  with  handles,  a  false  bottom  and  a  tight 
cover.  The  false  bottom  is  used  to  keep  the  containers  off 
the  bottom  and  thus  allow  water  to  come  in  contact  with  the 
cans  or  jars.  A  tinner  can  make  a  special  false  bottom,  or 
one  can  be  made  at  home  by  fastening  thin  boards  to  some 
cleats  and  submerging  in  the  water.  Wire  handles  may  be 
fastened  to  the  false  bottom  to  lift  the  entire  lot  of  containers 
out  when  cooked,  or  the  cans  may  be  removed  singly  with 
'tongs  or  other  device. 


Figure  56.     Canning  by  the  cold-pack  method. 

The  various  steps  in  cold-pack  canning  are,  in  order,  as 
as  follows:  Select  sound  products;  grade  for  ripeness,  size 
and  quality;  wash  clean;  trim,  if  necessary;  scald  or  blanch 
to  loosen  the  skin,  reduce  bulk  and  drive  out  objectionable 
acids;  plunge  into  cold  water  immediately,  or  "cold  dip,"  to 
separate  the  skin  from  the  pulp,  firm  the  texture,  set  the 
color  and  render  packing  easy;  pack  carefully  and  closely  in 
glass  jars  or  tin  cans;  add  hot  water  for  vegetables  and  hot 
water  or  hot  syrup  for  fruits;  place  rubber  and  cover  on  jar 


124  INDUSTRIAL  WORK  FOR  GIRLS 

and  partially  seal,  or  cap  and  tip  tin  cans  at  once;  cook,  or 
"process,"  immediately  and  according  to  time-table,  but  do 
not  begin  to  count  time  until  the  water  in  the  cooker  is 
boiling.  Scalding  is  immersing  for  one  or  two  minutes  in 
boiling  water  or  live  steam.  It  is  used  mostly  for  tree 
fruits  and  tomatoes.  Blanching  is  parboiling.  The  prod- 
uct is  left  in  the  boiling  water  for  a  longer  period  than  is 
necessary  for  scalding.  The  time  varies  from  one  to  fifteen 
minutes,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  product. 

The  time  necessary  to  cook  the  products  will  depend 
upon  the  kind  of  food  stuff  to  be  canned  and  the  altitude. 
Water  boils  at  212°F.  at  sea  level,  but  the  boiling  point  de- 
creases as  the  altitude  increases.  It  takes  longer,  therefore, 
to  cook  the  products  at  high  altitudes.  In  general,  the  time 
should  be  increased  at  the  rate  of  about  25  per  cent  for  each 
increase  of  4,000  feet  in  altitude.  In  general,  the  time  re- 
quired in  the  hot  water  bath  outfit  for  soft  fruits,  such  as 
berries,  peaches,  etc.,  at  an  altitude  of  500  feet,  is  about  16 
minutes;  for  sour  berry  fruits,  such  as  currants,  gooseberries, 
etc.,  about  16  minutes;  for  hard  fruits,  such  as  apples,  pears, 
etc.,  20  minutes;  for  greens,  such  as  spinach,  Swiss  chard, 
etc.,  blanch  15  or  20  minutes  and  sterilize  90  minutes;  for 
roots  and  tubers,  such  as  parsnips,  sweet  potatoes,  etc.,  90 
minutes;  for  tomatoes,  22  minutes;  for  sweet  corn,  180 
minutes;  for  string  beans  and  peas,  120  minutes;  and  for 
pumpkin  and  squash,  60  minutes.  While  overcooking  makes 
the  product  look  mushy,  it  is  always  better  to  overcook  than 
to  undercook,  as  in  the  latter  case  the  food  is  likely  to  spoil. 

As  soon  as  removed  from  the  cooker,  the  glass  containers 
should  be  tightly  sealed,  and  placed .  bottom  side  up  until 
cold.  They  should  then  be  stored  in  a  darkened  place,  as 
strong  light  fades  the  color. 


INDUSTRIAL  CLUB  WORK  125 

The  person  or  club  doing  the  canning  should  send  to  the 
Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C.,  for  the  N  R 
series,  "Co-operative  Extension  Work  in  Agriculture  and 
Home  Economics,"  for  complete  recipes,  tables,  etc.,  neces- 
sary for  a  thorough  understanding  of  the  subject.  It  is 
suggested  that,  where  club  work  is  done  at  school  or  at  home, 
a  commercial  canning  outfit  should  be  purchased.  It  could 
belong  to  the  club  or  to  the  school.  Many  clubs  have  worked 
on  the  co-operative  plan  and  sold  enough  canned  products 
from  the  home  gardens  to  bring  large  returns  for  the  time 
and  money  invested.  Special  labels  for  club  work  can  be 
obtained  and  should  be  used  for  the  cans  that  are  to.  be  sold. 
The  club  brand  is  popular  in  many  markets. 

BREAD  BAKING  CONTEST 

Bread  is  truly  the  "staff  of  life"  in  the  American  home, 
and  bread  making  is  one  of  the  things  that  every  girl  should 
learn  to  do  well.  Experience  is  a  good  teacher,  but  experi- 
ence alone  will  not  produce  good  bread  and  biscuit  bakers, 
as  many  fathers  and  brothers  can  testify.  The  scientific 
principles  must  be  understood.  No  experiment  should  be 
more  interesting  than  that  of  learning  to  bake  bread.  If 
possible,  demonstrations  should  be  given  at  school  before 
the  home  credit  work  begins.  In  any  event  every  girl 
should  seek  an  opportunity  to  show  what  she  can  do  in 
baking  for  a  certain  length  of  time  either  in  school  or  at 
home  or  both.  One  state  held  a  bread  baking  contest  with 
over  eighty  counties  represented  and  more  than  sixteen 
hundred  contestants. 

The  essential  factors  in  bread  making  are  the  flour,  the 
yeast  and  the  liquid  used.  It  is  true  that  there  is  a  difference 
in  flour,  but  most  of  the  flour  made  in  modern  mills  is  good 
flour  and  should  make  good  bread.  Some  flours  require  more 


126 


INDUSTRIAL  WORK  FOR  GIRLS 


Figure  57.     Prize  winning  loaves  in  a  state  bread  baking  contest.     Over  six- 
teen hundred  entries  were  in  competition. 

liquid,  or  more  kneading,  or  something  else  different  from 
others,  but  it  is  usually  not  the  fault  of  the  flour  when  the 
bread  is  not  good.  Good  bread  makers  can  generally  use 
the  home  flour  with  success.  Wheat  flour  contains  stronger 
gluten  than  any  other  and  it  is  this  that  makes  the  bread 
light.  For  this  reason  white  flour  is  mixed  with  rye  and 
other  flours  to  make  them  light.  Yeast  is  one  of  the  dust 
plants  found  in  the  air.  Because  it  gives  off  carbon  dioxide 
which  causes  the  bread  to  rise  as  the  gas  expands,  it  is  used 
commercially  in  various  forms.  The  yeast  cake,  dried  or 
compressed,  is  probably  best  for  general  use,  although  the 
homemade  yeast  sometimes  gives  better  results. 

Compressed  yeast  is  used  in  the  short  process  of  bread 
making  and  has  certain  advantages  over  other  yeasts.  It 
is  very  active,  but  must  be  used  while  it  is  fresh  as  it  will  not 
keep  long.  Dark  spots  indicate  dead  yeast  plants;  hence, 
whenever  compressed  yeast  is  used,  it  should  be  carefully 
inspected.  The  chief  disadvantage  in  the  use  of  compressed 


INDUSTRIAL  CLUB  WORK  127 

yeast  is  that  it  is  almost  impossible  for  those  who  cannot  get 
it  fresh  frequently  to  keep  it  active.  The  other  kinds  are 
better  for  ordinary  use.  On  the  other  hand,  if  it  is  not  pos- 
sible or  convenient  to  keep  a  sponge  over  night,  the  com- 
pressed yeast  will  hurry  up  the  process  so  that  the  bread  can 
be  baked  the  same  day  the  sponge  is  set. 

Milk,  water,  potato  water  and  buttermilk  are  all  used  as 
liquids.  Milk  usually  gives  a  better  crust  than  the  others 
and  the  bread  will  keep  fresh  longer.  Equal  quantities  of 
milk  and  water  are  often  used,  but  buttermilk  is  not  so 
commonly  a  factor  in  bread  making.  Other  ingredients  are 
sugar,  which  acts  as  food  for  the  yeast  plant  and  hastens  the 
rising,  salt  for  flavoring,  and  shortening  to  make  the  bread 
tender. 

There  are  several  methods  of  scoring  bread  when  it  is 
judged  in  contests.  The  following  is  one  that  is  used  in 
judging  the  bread  in  the  contest  work  of  one  state:  General 
appearance,  twenty  points ;  flavoring,  odor  and  taste,  thirty- 
five  points;  lightness,  fifteen  points;  and  crumb  texture, 
color,  grain,  thirty  points;  total,  one  hundred  points. 

See  Chapter  IV  for  recipe  for  yeast  bread.  If  you  enter 
any  particular  contest,  you  will  probably  have  a  definite 
recipe  to  follow.  When  you  write  your  booklet  on  "Bread 
Baking,"  tell  which  recipe  you  used. 


CHAPTER  VII 
HOME  CREDIT  EXERCISES 

Many  city  and  village  schools  have  adopted  the  advanced 
policy  of  allowing  school  credit  for  certain  kinds  of  home 
work.  There  is  no  good  reason  why  this  plan  cannot  be 
extended  to  the  rural  schools  as  well.  The  following  "Home 
Credit  Exercises"  have  been  carefully  planned  with  a  view 
to  giving  such  credit.  In  any  event,  they  are  worth  doing 
and  the  teacher  can  be  of  great  assistance  in  directing  the 
work  whether  the  school  can  give  credit  or  not. 

THE  FLOWER  GARDEN 

There  should  be  more  flower  gardens  on  our  home 
grounds.  After  studying  references  on  landscape  gardening 
and  consulting  with  teacher,  brothers  and  parents,  plan  a 
landscape  garden  for  the  front  of  the  house.  If  not  already 
in  grass,  the  soil  should  be  leveled  and  seeded  down  or  sod- 
ded. When  ready  to  plant,  use  a  plat  drawn  especially 
for  this  purpose  and  set  out  the  shrubs  first.  As  shrubs  are 
permanent,  great  care  must  be  used  in  the  arrangement.  A 
small  lawn  will  be  crowded  if  more  than  a  few  are  used. 
A  few  clusters,  with  two  or  more  shrubs  in  a  cluster,  placed 
in  an  irregular  manner,  as  nature  arranges  them,  will  be 
sufficient.  The  rose,  snowball,  bridal  wreath  and  syringa  are 
some  of  the  beautiful  flowering  shrubs.  One  or  more  flower 
beds,  depending  upon  the  size  of  the  lawn,  should  be  provided. 
They  may  be  round,  oval  or  irregular,  as  desired,  and  they 
should  be  elevated.  Cannas  are  beautiful  for  the  center. 
Small  geraniums,  carnations,  begonias,  sweet  alyssum  or 
some  other  favorite  plants  that  are  suitable,  should  surround 
the  cannas.  Have  some  small  foliage  plants  around  all  as  a 

128 


HOME  CREDIT  EXERCISES  129 

border  for  the  bed.  Be  careful  to  use  good  judgment  in  the 
arrangement  so  that  the  colors  will  blend  harmoniously  as 
well  as  produce  a  natural  effect  in  the  landscape. 

A  delightful  back  garden  may  be  produced  in  the  back 
yard  with  a  little  planning  and  work.  If  you  can  have  a 
summer  playhouse,  which  should  be  the  inheritance  of  every 
young  person,  so  much  the  better.  Cover  it  with  five- 
leaf  ivy  and  climbing  roses,  and  make  it  the  center  of  at- 
traction. Winding  paths,  bordered  by  hedges  and  shaded 
with  flowering  shrubs,  should  lead  to  the  house.  Old- 
fashioned  flowers  may  be  arranged  artistically  as  space 
will  permit.  For  a  permanent  border,  select  columbines, 
foxgloves,  larkspurs,  Canterbury  bells,  bleeding  heart  and 
other  old  favorites.  For  annual  beds,  there  are  many  kinds 
that  are  suitable,  such  as  sweet  peas,  pansies,  phlox,  as- 
ters, violets,  poppies,  nasturtiums,  gladioli  and  chrysan- 
themums. 

Such  a  flower  garden  as  here  suggested  will  require 
plenty  of  energy  and  constant  care,  but  it  may  be  made  a 
veritable  fairyland  of  birds  and  bees  and  flowers,  and  is 
well  worth  while.  It  should  be  made  a  home  club  affair 
in  which  all  the  members  of  the  family  take  an  interest. 
Neither  the  cost  nor  the  labor  can  be  the  reasons  why  there 
are  so  few  such  gardens.  Some  one  must  take  the  initia- 
tive and  show  that  the  project  is  commendable.  The  girls 
can  do  it.  Let  the  school  help  you  get  yours  started. 

HOUSE  PLANTS 

In  case  it  seems  impossible  to  carry  out  the  flower  garden 
idea  on  such  an  elaborate  scale  as  given  under  that  heading, 
there  is  still  opportunity  to  work  with  flowers  in  the  home. 
Many  of  these  can  be  transplanted  to  the  garden  during  the 
summer.  A  few  flower  pots  or  window  boxes  will  be  all 


130  INDUSTRIAL  WORK  FOR  GIRLS 

that  is  necessary  at  first.  If  there  is  a  large  south  or  east 
window  in  the  house,  so  much  the  better.  A  flower  stand 
can  be  made  of  narrow  boards,  and  stained  or  painted  to 
harmonize  with  the  surroundings.  Select  the  varieties  you 
like  best  and  secure  slips  and  bulbs  from  your  neighbors 
or  the  florist.  Plant  in  rich,  mellow  soil  and  keep  well 
watered.  Loosen  the  soil  occasionally  to  prevent  baking 
or  hardening.  Watch  for  plant  lice  and  destroy  them  with 
a  soap  emulsion  sprayed  over  the  plant.  A  few  common 
house  plants  are  the  geranium,  hydrangea,  lily,  fuchsia, 
carnation,  begonia,  petunia,  Christmas  cactus,  asparagus 
and  sword  ferns.  Both  pleasure  and  profit  will  be  derived 
from  a  careful  study  of  house  plants. 

BIRD  STUDY 

One  of  the  most  interesting  projects  for  which  home 
credit  should  be  given  is  a  study  of  the  common  birds. 
This,  being  outdoor  work,  will  afford  abundance  of  health- 
ful exercise.  A  notebook  should  be  a  constant  companion 
and,  if  you  are  fortunate  enough  to  have  a  kodak,  the 
field  work  will  be  still  more  interesting.  Your  notes  should 
be  written  in  permanent  form  into  a  " Birds  That  I  Know" 
booklet. 

Birds  are  classified  as  land,  water,  game  and  birds  of  prey. 
Some  go  south  for  the  winter;  others  do  not.  You  should 
make  a  table  of  these  migrations  with  dates  in  the  spring 
and  fall.  Some  birds  are  injurious,  destroying  grains, 
fruits,  beneficial  animals  and  other  birds.  Some  of  these  are 
the  common  English  sparrow,  the  kingfisher  and  the  crow. 
These  birds  should  be  destroyed.  Other  birds  are  highly 
beneficial  and  should  be  protected.  Still  others  are  prized 
for  their  songs  and  plumage.  Some  of  the  beneficial  birds 
are  as  follows:  Robin,  house  wren,  song  sparrow,  orchard 


HOME  CREDIT  EXERCISES  131 

oriole,  bank  swallow,  barn  swallow,  blue  jay,  cardinal, 
red-winged  blackbird,  redheaded  woodpecker,  killdeer,  quail, 
dove,  screech  owl,  barn  owl,  buzzard,  humming  bird,  cow- 
bird  and  meadow  lark.  Nearly  all  these,  as  well  as  many 
others,  can  be  observed  and  studied  in  your  community. 
Birds  feed  chiefly  upon  insects  and  other  injurious  pests 
and  hence  should  be  protected.  State  and  national  laws 
protect  most  of  these  birds,  but  you  can  help  also.  Bird 
houses  to  protect  from  cold  and  wet,  crumbs  thrown  out 
when  snow  is  on  the  ground  and  watching  that  cats  and 
other  animals  do  not  molest  the  young  birds  just  from  the 
nest  are  some  of  the  ways. 

BED  MAKING 

Every  girl  should  learn  how  to  make  beds  properly  and 
then  apply  her  knowledge.  This  is  a  very  good  task  for 
home  credit  work. 

On  rising  in  the  morning,  throw  the  bed  covers  back 
over  the  foot  of  the  bed  allowing  the  bedding  to  air  for  an 
hour  or  two  with  the  windows  open.  Then  make  the  beds 
as  follows :  Straighten  the  mattress  and  smooth  out  the  pad 
carefully,  before  putting  on  the  sheets.  Spread  the  lower 
sheet  right  side  up  over  the  bed.  Bring  the  edges  and 
ends  well  under  the  mattress  in  order  that  it  may  be  pro- 
tected and  that  the  sheet  will  not  become  unnecessarily 
wrinkled.  Spread  the  upper  sheet  over  the  bed  wrong  side 
up  and  the  wide  hem  or  ornamented  end  of  the  sheet  toward 
the  head  of  the  bed.  Bring  the  sheet  up  far  enough  so  that 
it  can  be  turned  back  about  eight  or  ten  inches  over  the 
blankets  or  quilts  in  order  to  protect  them.  Be  sure  to  place 
all  covers  on  the  bed  so  that  they  extend  equally  on  both 
sides.  Tuck  the  covers  down  at  the  foot  of  the  bed.  Put 
on  the  spread  neatly.  Fluff  out  the  pillows  and  arrange 
them  neatly  at  the  head  of  the  bed. 


132  INDUSTRIAL  WORK  FOR  GIRLS 

At  least  once  a  week  air  the  bedclothes  out-of-doors 
in  the  sunshine.  Fresh  air  and  sunshine  are  the  best  puri- 
fiers and  germ  killers  known.  Turn  the  mattress  over  and 
exchange  ends  occasionally  to  prevent  forming  hollows  in 
it.  Sheets  and  pillow  cases  should  be  changed  at  least  once 
a  week. 

PREPARING  A  MEAL 

Get  the  breakfast  or  some  other  meal  regularly  for 
six  weeks-  or  other  convenient  unit  of  time.  Such  work 
is  excellent  training  and  the  parents  can  determine  how  soon 
the  students  should  be  allowed  credit  in  school  for  the  work 
done  at  home.  A  signed  statement  from  them  may  be  taken 
to  the  teacher.  The  following  suggestions  for  preparing 
a  meal  may  be  helpful: 

Prepare  those  things  in  advance  which  can  be  so  pre- 
pared without  injuring  the  quality  of  food,  in  case  it  is 
some  time  before  they  are  to  be  served.  Start  those  dishes 
first  which  take  the  longest  time;  then  those  that  are  to  be 
prepared  and  served  at  once.  Watch  the  clock  and  try  to 
have  things  ready  just  in  time.  For  the  beginner,  it  is 
advisable  to  choose  dishes  that  will  not  spoil  if  completed 
a  short  time  before  they  are  to  be  served.  Serve  those  dishes 
which  are  to  be  hot,  hot;  and  cold  dishes,  cold.  Wash 
as  many  of  the  mixing  and  cooking  utensils  as  possible 
before  serving  the  meal.  You  will  find  it  necessary  to  remain 
in  the  kitchen  during  the  greater  part  of  the  time  while  the 
meal  is  cooking.  Make  use  of  the  spare  moments  and  there 
will  be  fewer  dishes  to  wash  later. 

LAYING  THE  TABLE 

Learn  how  to  lay  a  table  properly  and  then  arrange  to 
have  charge  of  it  for  six  weeks  at  a  time,  or  as  long  as  it 
may  be  desired.  Since  many  persons  do  not  lay  the 


HOME  CREDIT  EXERCISES  133 

table  properly,  be  sure  that  you  know  how  before  you 
begin  to  do  this  work.  The  following  suggestions  may 
be  helpful: 

Spread  a  white  felt  cloth  over  the  table  to  protect  its 
polish,  to  give  body  to  the  tablecloth  and  to  deaden  the  sound. 
When  buying  the  silence  cloth,  as  the  felt  cloth  is  called, 
plan  to  have  it  extend  well  over  the  edges  of  the  table  and 
make  it  long  enough  to  allow  for  shrinkage.  Spread  the 
tablecloth  over  this,  having  the  lengthwise  fold  extending  the 
long  way  of  the  table,  and  the  cloth  extending  over  equally 
at  both  ends  and  at  the  sides.  Make  similar  plans  for  a 
round  table.  Place  the  centerpiece  in  the  center  of  the 
table  and  on  it  a  rather  shallow  dish  of  flowers.  A  table 
fern  or  other  suitable  plant  may  be  used.  At  breakfast, 
it  is  pleasing  to  have  a  dish  of  fruit  in  the  center  of  the 
table. 

Allow  about  two  feet  for  each  cover.  A  " cover"  means 
the  knives,  forks,  spoons,  plates,  tumbler  and  napkin  needed 
by  each  person.  Excepting  the  tumbler,  the  cover  is  placed 
from  one  half  to  one  inch  from  the  edge  of  the  table.  The 
plate  is  placed  in  the  middle  of  the  cover,  the  forks  at  the 
left  of  the  plate  in  the  order  in  which  they  are  to  be  used, 
beginning  at  the  outside.  The  napkin  is  placed  at  the  left 
of  the  forks.  The  knives  and  spoons  are  at  the  right  of  the 
plate,  also  in  the  order  in  which  they  are  to  be  used,  begin- 
ning at  the  outside.  The  sharp  edge  of  the  knives  should 
be  towards  the  plate.  The  bowls  of  the  spoons  and  the 
tines  of  the  forks  should  be  up.  The  tumbler  is  placed  at 
the  end  of  the  knives  and  slightly  towards  the  plate. 

Salt  and  pepper,  cream  and  sugar,  jelly  and  pickles,  and 
usually  bread  and  butter  are  placed  on  the  table  before  the 
meal  is  announced. 


134  INDUSTRIAL  WORK  FOR  GIRLS 

SERVING  MEALS 

To  serve  a  meal  properly  is  an  art  every  girl  should  be 
proud  to  accomplish.  Do  this  one  or  more  meals  daily 
for  six  weeks  or  longer  and  submit  a  report  to  school  for 
home  credit. 

Have  everything  that  is  to  accompany  the  first  course 
on  the  table  when  the  meal  is  announced.  When  a  waitress 
is  serving  something  in  an  individual  dish  it  should  be 
placed  from  the  right-hand  side  of  the  person  sitting  at  the 
table.  When  the  waitress  is  passing  a  dish  from  which  the 
person  being  served  is  to  help  himself,  it  should  be  passed 
to  the  left  of  the  person,  and  the  dish  should  be  held  on  the 
level  of  the  table.  As  soon  as  the  course  is  completed,  re- 
move it  and  everything  that  was  served  with  it.  Next 
remove  the  soiled  dishes  and  the  silver  used  for  the  course. 
Remove  all  dishes  from  the  right- of  the  person.  In  polite 
society  it  is  considered  best  to  remove  the  dishes  from  but 
one  cover  at  a  time.  In  any  event,  do  not  take  more  than 
from  two  persons  at  one  time.  The  waitress  should  be  care- 
ful while  serving  not  to  reach  in  front  of  anyone. 

Before  serving  the  dessert,  remove  the  crumbs  from  the 
table,  using  a  crumb  tray.  Have  the  glasses  of  water  filled 
only  three  fourths  full  when  the  guests  are  seated.  The 
glasses  should  be  refilled  if  necessary  during  the  meal,  being 
careful  to  take  hold  of  the  glass  as  near  the  bottom  as  pos- 
sible. Remove  but  one  tumbler  at  a  time  when  refilling  it,  as 
otherwise  the  glasses  might  be  exchanged.  . 

CLEARING  DINING  TABLE  AND  WASHING  DISHES 
First  remove  all  soiled  dishes  from  the  dining  table.  If 
necessary,  scrape  crumbs  from  the  table  again.  Remove 
the  cloth,  folding  it  carefully  in  the  same  folds.  Remove  the 
silence  cloth.  If  the  napkins  have  been  used  by  the  regular 
members  of  the  family,  they  may  be  used  again  and  should 


HOME  CREDIT  EXERCISES      ,  135 

be  placed  in  the  sideboard  drawer;  but,  if  used  for  special 
guests  for  that  particular  meal,  they  should  be  taken  directly 
to  the  laundry. 

Place  a  centerpiece  on  the  table,  and  on  it  a  dish  of 
flowers  or  ferns,  if  available.  Brush  up  the  crumbs  from  the 
floor. 

While  the  dining  room  is  being  cleared,  the  water  should 
be  heating  for  the  dishes.  Collect  the  silver  and  place  it  to 
soak  in  a  jar  or  pitcher.  Remove  all  particles  of  food 
from  the  dishes,  using  a  plate  scraper  or  a  crust  of  bread. 
Wipe  greasy  dishes  with  a  paper.  Soak  those  which  con- 
tained sugar  mixtures  in  warm  water,  and  those  that 
contained  milk,  eggs  and  starchy  mixtures  in  cold  water, 
before  starting  to  wash  the  dishes.  Pile  the  plates  of  one 
size  together.  If  but  few  of  a  kind,  the  smaller  ones  may  be 
placed  on  top.  Remove  left  over  food  to  smaller  dishes 
and  put  it  away  in  the  refrigerator  or  other  sanitary  place. 
Prepare  warm,  soapy  water  in  the  dish  pan  and  in  it  wash  the 
glassware.  Some  prefer  to  dry  the  glassware  without 
rinsing  it,  as  it  is  then  more  easily  polished.  Use  a  clean 
dry  towel.  Put  each  lot  of  dishes  away  as  soon  as  dried. 
Wash,  rinse  and  dry  in  the  following  order:  Silver,  cups, 
saucers,  small  odd  dishes,  as  cream  pitchers,  etc.,  small 
plates,  large  plates,  serving  dishes,  mixing  and  cooking 
utensils.  Change  the  water  if  there  are  many  dishes,  as 
the  work  cannot  be  well  done  otherwise,  and  the  dish  towels 
become  unnecessarily  soiled.  Clean  the  work  tables.  When 
the  dishwater  is  emptied,  wash,  rinse  and  dry  with  the 
towel  the  dish  pan  and  the  drain  pan.  Wash  and  rinse 
the  dish  cloth  and  hang  it  up  where  it  can  dry  quickly 
and  be  aired.  Also  hang  up  the  dish  towels  to  dry. 
Clean  the  sink  thoroughly,  using  a  special  cloth  for  that 
purpose. 


136 


INDUSTRIAL  WORK  FOR  GIRLS 


FLY  CONTROL 

One  of  the  worst  pests  of  modern  life  is  the  common  house, 
or  "typhoid,"  fly.  It  is  filthy  and  loathsome,  breeding  in 
barnyard  manure,  outhouses,  etc.;  consequently,  it  is  one 
of  the  worst  disease  carriers.  Typhoid  fever,  tuberculosis 
and  dysentery  are  often  traced  to  the  house  fly.  The  only 
real  preventive  is  to  get  rid  of  the  breeding  places.  Manure 
must  not  be  allowed  to  collect.  Houses  should  be  made 
modern;  but,  until  then,  outhouses  can  be  screened  and 
kept  clean  and  odorless.  Do  not  throw  out  dishwater  or 
other  slops  where  they  will  be  a  harbor  for  flies.  Have  a 

garbage  pail  and  use  it. 
See  that  all  doors  and 
windows  are  screened. 
Fly  poisons  are  danger- 
ous and  must  be  used 
with  care.  The  commer- 
cial sticky  papers  and  the 

"swatter"  help  get  rid  of 
i/.          « 

Figure  58.     House,  or  typhoid,  fly — a,  adult 
or  fly;  b,  < 
all  enlarge 


or  fly;  b,  eggs;  c,  larva  or  maggot;  d,  pupa; 
;ed. 


those  flies  already  in  the 
house.  A  few  cedar 
boughs  suspended  from 

the  ceiling  will  attract  the  flies  to  roost  at  night,  from 
which  they  may  be  shaken  into  bags.  Send  to  your  state 
entomologist  for  a  bulletin  on  the  control  of  flies,  and  a 
description  of  traps  for  catching  them.  Many  communities 
have  annual  crusades  against  flies,  offering  bounties  and 
rewards  for  the  largest  numbers.  This  is  a  home  project 
worthy  of  study. 

PLANNING  THE  HOME 

Make  drawings  of  your  home  showing  the  rooms  on  each 
floor  as  well  as  the  basement.     Make  three  drawings — the 


HOME  CREDIT  EXERCISE 8 


137 


138  INDUSTRIAL  WORK  FOR  GIRLS 

basement,  first  floor  and  second  floor.  Be  careful  to  show 
the  details,  as  location  of  the  clothes  closets,  direction  in 
which  the  doors  swing,  etc.,  as  these  are  very  important. 
After  these  drawings  have  been  approved  by  the  teacher, 
draw  an  original  house  plan,  laying  out  each  room  exactly 
as  you  want  it,  keeping  convenience,  comfort,  sanitation, 
art  and  cost  in  mind.  Draw  this  to  some  convenient  scale, 
as  one  half  inch  to  the  foot.  This  exercise  is  valuable  and 
will  require  some  careful  reading,  study  and  consultation. 

VENTILATION 

If  there  is  a  new  barn  at  your  home,  it  probably  has 
special  ventilators  to  carry  off  the  foul  air  and  furnish  the 
stock  with  plenty  of  pure  air.  Where  are  the  ventilators  in 
the  house?  Very  likely  the  stove,  the  doors  and  the  windows 
are  the  only  means  of  getting  a  change  of  air.  This  method 
of  ventilating  is  not  so  bad  in  summer,  if  the  doors  and  win- 


Figure  62.  Ventilation  of  room,  showing  "window"  and  "register"  methods.  A 
board  inserted  at  the  bottom  of  the  window  will  leave  space  between  the  two 
sashes  for  the  admission  of  air.  The  register  method  is  possible  only  with  a 
furnace. 


HOME  CREDIT  EXERCISES  139 

dows  are  kept  open,  but  in  cold  weather  it  is  seldom  that  the 
home  is  well  ventilated.  Air  becomes  impure  and  a  source 
of  disease.  Colds,  tuberculosis  and  many  other  diseases  are 
often  caused  from  impure  air,  through  lack  of  ventilation. 
A  simple  test  for  carbon  dioxide  in  the  air  is  limewater. 
Slack  a  small  lump  of  lime  in  cold  water  and  let  it  settler 
Pour  off  the  clear  limewater,  put  a  few  spoonfuls  into  a  glass 
jar  and  allow  it  to  stand  for  several  hours  in  the  room  you 
wish  to  test.  If  a  white  powdery  looking  substance  settles 
in  the  bottom  after  you  shake  the  jar  there  is  enough  carbon 
dioxide  in  the  air  to  be  injurious  and  the  air  is  not  fit  to 
breathe.  Test  the  air  of  the  schoolroom,  and  then  of  the 
bedrooms  at  home.  What  are  your  conclusions?  Do  you 
always  sleep  with  your  windows  up,  winter  as  well  as  sum- 
mer? If  not,  try  it. 

SAVINGS  BANKS 

One  of  the  best  plans  to  encourage  thrift  and  teach  the 
value  of  saving  is  the  one  now  adopted  by  many  schools  of 
affiliating  the  school  with  one  or  more  banks  and  allowing 
students  to  make  weekly  deposits.  The  teacher  acts  as 
local  cashier  and  deposits  the  money  at  the  banks  when  con- 
venient. One  day  a  week  is  known  as  banking  day  at  school 
and  pupils  may  deposit  any  amount  from  one  cent  up. 
They  are  given  stamps  as  certificates.  These  stamps  are 
furnished  free  by  the  banks.  One  school  of  thirty  students 
recently  deposited  more  than  $100  in  four  months,  most  of 
which  would  have  been  spent  needlessly,  had  they  not  be- 
come interested  in  the  savings  bank  movement.  The 
garden  and  club  work  make  it  possible  for  all  young  persons 
to  earn  money  for  themselves,  and  there  is  all  the  more  need 
of  learning  to  save.  «Many  look  upon  "pin"  money  as  some- 
thing with  which  to  buy  chewing  gum  and  candy,  if  not 


140  INDUSTRIAL  WORK  FOR  GIRL 8 

something  more  injurious.  Increasing  the  earning  capacity 
is  very  important;  but  unless  one  learns  to  spend  less  than  is 
earned,  there  can  be  no  saving.  The  following  ten  thrift 
maxims  have  been  selected  from  an  Oregon  pamphlet  on 
''Industrial  Club  Work."  They  are  proverbs  well  worth 
considering : 

" Fortune  helps  them  that  help  themselves." 

"Punctuality  is  the  soul  of  business." 

"Who  will  not  keep  a  penny  shall  never  have  many." 

"Plow  deep  while  sluggards  sleep,  and  you  shall  have  corn 
to  sell  and  keep." 

"Industry  is  fortune's  right  hand  and  frugality  her  left." 

"He  is  poor  whose  expenses  exceed  his  income." 

"Early  to  bed,  early  to  rise,  makes  a  man  healthy, 
wealthy  and  wise." 

"He  that  will  not  stoop  for  a  pin  will  never  be  worth  a 
pound." 

"He  that  has  but  four,  and  spends  five,  has  no  need  of 
a  purse." 

"He  that  saves  when  he  is  young,  may  spend  when  he 
is  old." 

HOME  ACCOUNTS 

Every  girl  should  know  how  to  keep  simple  home  ac- 
counts, and  then  keep  them.  It  is  said  that  the  average 
housekeeper  has  the  spending  of  about  three  fourths  of  the 
income  for  the  family.  She  should  spend  it  systematically 
and  economically,  and  keeping  accounts  will  assist  her  to 
do  so.  As  a  supplement  to  the  club  work  and  savings  bank 
accounts  this  work  is  admirable. 

Learning  to  keep  accounts  should  be  a  part  of  the  arith- 
metic work  of  the  upper  classes.  There  are  a  few  simple 
things  that  must  be  remembered  and  always  followed. 


HOME  CREDIT  EXERCISES 


141 


An  account  may  be  defined  as  the  name  under  which  certain 
transactions  are  arranged  according  to  whether  they  have 
been  "received,"  or  "parted  with."  When  an  account 
receives  something,  the  transaction  is  put  on  the  left  side, 
or  "debited";  when  it  parts  with  something,  the  transaction 
is  put  on  the  right  side,  or  "credited."  The  school  should 
have  some  special  ledger  cards,  about  six  by  eight  inches, 
made  up  for  this  work. 

The  inventory  is  the  first  step  in  starting  accounts.  A 
continued  form  is  shown.  Study  it  and  make  out  one  for 
your  home.  A  half  dozen  accounts  is  all  that  is  necessary, 
unless  you  run  store  accounts.  In  that  event,  you  will 
need  a  personal  account  for  each  firm  with  which  you  trade. 
Study  the  suggestive  accounts  here  given  and  start  to  keep 
the  real  records  of  your  home  as  a  home  credit  project". 

Suggestive  Accounts 

CONTINUED  INVENTORIES 


Items 

Remarks 

Jan.   1, 
1915 

Jan.   1, 

1916 

Jan.    1, 
1917 

Kitchen  Utensils 
1  Range  
1  Tea  Kettle  
2  Dish  Pans  
Etc 

3  yrs.  old  
Nickel  
Enamel  

40  00 
1  50 
1  50 

36  00 
1  00 
1  00 

Dining  Room 
1  Table  
6  Chairs 

Quar.  Oak  
8uar   Oak 

22  50 
9  00 

20  00 

7  00 

Table  Linen  
Etc 

loths,  Napkins  

12  50 

8  50 

Living  Room 
2  Rockers  .  .              . 

Oak 

15  00 

12  00 

1  Stand  

Oak  

3  75 

3  25 

. 

1   Rug  
Etc 

Wilton  

18  00 

16  00 

Hall 
1  Hall  Tree 

Oak 

4  50 

4  25 

1  Rug  

Brussels  

8  50 

7  00 

Bedrooms 
2  Bedsteads  
2  Rugs  
2   Dressers  

Iron  
Rag  
Oak  

17  50 

6  00 
18  00 

16  50 
4  00 
16  00 

142 


INDUSTRIAL  WORK  FOR  GIRLS 


S.  A.  NORBERG 


Date 
3-16 

Brought  Forward 
Received  Check  

2  60 

Date 

1-5 
1-9 

Brought  Forward 
1  Sack  Flour  

2  10 
2  60 

2  Ibs.  Dairy  Butter  @  25c 

2  60 

2  60 

C.  A.  SWANSON 


Date 
1-16 

Brought  Forward 
Received  Check  

3  30 

Date 
1-4 

Brought  Forward 
2  Kitchen  Chairs  @  75c  .  . 

1  50 

1-6 

Picture  Wire  
2  yds.  Linoleum  @  85c.  .  . 

10 
1   70 

3  30 

3  30 

A.  L.  THELANDER  &  CO. 


Date 
1-16 

Brought  Forward 
By  Check  

4  85 

Date 
1-11 

Brought  Forward 
5  gal.  Kerosene  @  15c  . 

75 

1-14 
1-16 

2  pkgs.  Needles  @  lOc  .  .  . 
1  pr.  Shoes  
1  pr.  Yarn  Gloves  
6  yds.  Gingham  @  15c  .  .  . 

20 
3  50 
50 
90 

4  85 

4  85 

MRS.  HENRY  SMITH 


Date 
1-16 

Brought  Forward 
Monthly  Allowance 

40  00 

Date 
1-2 

Brought  Forward 
Received  Check 

40  00 

40  00 

40  00 

CASH 


Date 
1-2 

1-16 

Brought  Forward 
Received  Check  

Bal.  on  Hand  

40  00 

Date 

1-2 

1-10 
1-16 

1-16 

Brought  Forward 

2  Ibs.  Mutton  @  15c... 
1  Ib.  Lard  
Paid  Rent 

30 
18 
10  00 
50 
4  85 
2  60 
3  30 
18  27 

Church  Collections  
A.  L.  Thelander  &  Co. 
S.  A.  Norberg  
C.  A.  Swanson  
Bal.  on  Hand         

40  00 
18  27 

40  00 

HOME  CREDIT  EXERCISES 


143 


RENT,  FUEL  &  LIGHTING 


Date 

Brought  Forward 

Date 

Brought  Forward 

1-2 
1-11 

Paid  Rent  
5  gal.  Kerosene  @  15c..    . 

10  00 
75 

3-16 

Expense  

10  75 

10  75 

10  75 

HOUSE  FURNISHINGS 


Date 

1-4 

Brought  Forward 
2  Kitchen  Chairs  @  75c  . 

1  50 

Date 
3-16 

Brought  Forward 
House  F.  Expense  

3  30 

1-6 

Picture  Wire  
2  yds.  Linoleum  @  85c.  .  . 

10 

1   70 

* 

3  30 

3  30 

CLOTHING 


Date 
1-14 

Brought  Forward 
1  pr   Shoes 

3  50 

Date 
3-16 

Brought  Forward 
Clothing  Expense  

4  90 

1-16 

1  pr.  Yarn  Gloves,  .  ."  
6  yds.  Gingham  @  15c.  .  . 

50 
90 

4  90 

4  90 

FOOD  SUPPLIES 


Date 

Brought  Forward 

Date 

Brought  Forwafrd 

1-2 

21bs.  Mutton®  15c..  . 

30 

1-16 

Food  Expense  

3  08 

1  Ib.  Lard  

18 

1-5 

1  Sack  Flour  

2  10 

19 

2  Ibs   Butter  @  25c 

50 

3  08 

3  08 

MISCELLANEOUS 


Date 

1-10 
1-14 

Brought  Forward 

Church  Collection  
2  pkgs.  Needles  @  lOc  .  .  . 

50 
20 

Date 
3-16 

Brought  Forward 
Misc   Expense 

70 
70 

70 

OTHER  HOME  PROJECTS 

There  are  many  other  suitable  exercises  for  which  the 
school  should  give  home  credit  under  certain  conditions, 
but  space  will  not  permit  discussions.  Some  of  them  are  as 


144  INDUSTRIAL  WORK  FOR  GIRLS 

follows:  Dusting  with  oiled  cloths,  scrubbing  floors,  wash- 
ing clothes,  ironing,  pressing  clothes,  planning  menus,  pur- 
chasing materials,  learning  the  cuts  of  meats  and  their  values, 
preserving  fresh  eggs,  making  dairy  butter,  and  a  study  of 
textiles' — wool,  cotton,  linen,  silk,  etc. 

INDUSTRIAL  EXHIBIT 

Finally,  as  the  grand  climax  of  the  industrial  "work,  plan 
to  have  at  least  one  industrial  exhibit  each  year  at  the  school 
and  invite  all  the  people  of  the  community.  Get  the  farmers' 
club,  the  creamery  directors  and  other  organizations,  as  well 
as  the  school  board,  interested  enough  to  offer  small  prizes 
to  encourage  the  work.  If  no  prizes  are  offered,  have  the 
exhibit  anyway.  The  best  plan  is  to  have  two — one  in  the 
spring,  just  before  school  is  out,  and  th'e  other  in  fall  just 
before  cold  weather.  In  the  spring  the  best  work  of  the 
year  at  school  may  be  shown,  not  only  the  industrial  work, 
but  arithmetic,  writing,  language,  etc.  A  spelling  contest 
will  add  interest.  In  the  fall,  a  "harvest  home  festival" 
may  be  given  at  which  will  be  exhibited  the  work  done  by 
the  students  during  the  summer.  This  will  include  garden 
products,  corn,  tomato,  canning  and  other  contest  work, 
as  well  as  any  other  special  "home  credit"  projects. 

The  following  premium  list  was  used  for  the  annual  con- 
test of  fifteen  rural  associated  schools  at  Cokato,  Minnesota, 
spring  of  1915.  In  addition  to  the  individual  and  school 
prizes,  a  sweepstakes  silver  trophy  was  offered,  which  be- 
comes the  permanent  property  of  any  school  winning  it  for 
two  successive  years. 

Premium  List  for  Contest  in  Associated  Schools 

PENMANSHIP 

1.  Best  individual  specimen  of  writing,  including  movement 

exercises,  small  letters,  capitals,  figures  and   words  .  .  .    .75     .50     .25 

2.  Best  general  display  from  all  grades 75     .50     .25 


HOME  CREDIT  EXERCISES  145 


GEOGRAPHY 

1.  Best  relief  map  of  Minnesota 75  .50  .25 

2.  Best  relief  map  of  any  continent 75  .50  .25 

3.  Best  drawn  map  of  any  kind, 75  .50  .25 

LANGUAGE 

1.  Best  booklet  on  any  one  of  the  following  topics:     Corn, 

Noxious  Weeds,  Vegetable  Garden,  Strawberries,  Ap- 
ples, Poultry  for  Pleasure  and  Profit,  Farm  Animals, 
Bee  Culture,  Home  Sanitation,  The  Typhoid  Fly 75  .50  .25 

2.  Best  general  display  from  all  grades 75     .50     .25 

ARITHMETIC 


1. 

Best  general  display  from  all  grades  

.75 

.50 

.25 

ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  WORK 

1. 

Best  woven  mat,  yarn  or  cloth  

.75 

.50 

.25 

2. 

Best  hammock  

.75 

.50 

.25 

3. 

Best  napkin  ring  -.  

.75 

.50 

.25 

4. 

Best  raffia  or  reed  mat  

,75 

50 

.25 

5. 

Best  raffia  or  reed  basket  

.75 

.50 

.25 

6. 

Best  yarn  cap  or  bonnet  

.75 

.50 

.25 

7. 

Best  clay  exhibit  

.75 

.50 

.25 

8. 

Best  general  exhibit  of  industrial  work  

.75 

.50 

.25 

SEWING 

1. 

Best  needlebook  

.50 

.35 

.25 

2. 

Best  outing  flannel  holder  

.50 

.35 

.25 

3. 

Best  gingham  holder  

50 

.35 

.25 

4. 

Best  sleevelets  

.50 

.35 

.25 

5. 

Best  cap  

.50 

.35 

.25 

6. 

Best  hemstitched  towel  

.75 

.50 

.25 

7. 

Best  stockinet  darning  

.75 

.50 

.25 

8. 

Best  buttonholes  

.75 

.50 

.25 

9. 

Best  gingham  bag  

.75 

.50 

.25 

10. 

Best  sewing  apron  

.75 

.50 

.25 

11. 

Best  hemmed  patch  

.75 

.50 

.25 

12. 

Best  three-cornered  darn  

.75 

.50 

.25 

13. 

Best  outing  flannel  nightgown  

.75 

.50 

.25 

14. 

Best  overhand  patch  

.75 

.50 

.25 

15. 

Best  general  exhibit  of  sewing  

Each  article  is  to  be  made  as  directed  in  course  of  study 

1.00 

of  study 

MANUAL  TRAINING 

1.  Best  match  scratcher 50  .35  .25 

2.  Best  plant  marker 50  .35  .25 

3.  Best  salt  box 75  .50  .25 

4.  Best  match  box 75  .50  .25 

5.  Best  other  article 75  .50  .25 

6.  Best    composition    on    "Manual    Training   in   the    Rural 

School" 75     .50     .25 

7.  Best  general  exhibit  in  manual  training 1.00 

AGRICULTURE 

1.  Corn  judging  contest 75     .50     .25 

2.  Corn  germinator  with  germinating  corn  ready  to  count. 

Must  include  report  on  test  and  opinion  of  seed  by  ex- 
hibitor  75     .50     .25 

3.  Long  and  short  splice  (both  must  be  included) 75     .50     .25 

4.  Best  general  exhibit  of  rope  work  including  knots  and 

splices. 75     .50     .25 

5.  Best  noxious  weed  seed  exhibit  to  be  selected  and  de- 

termined by  the  school 75     .50     .25 

6.  Best  general  exhibit  in  agricultural  work 1.00 


|iiiii;iii:i!i!i!i!iii:iii:iii!i:iiiiiii!i;i:n 

I  Rural  Education  I 

A.  E.  PICKARD 

|  1 
AN    AID    TO    PRODUCTIVE    TEACHING 
FOR  NORMAL  CLASSES,  READING  CIR- 
CLES, COUNTY  SUPERINTENDENTS  and 
RURAL  TEACHERS 

Adopted  in  Several  States  and  Many  Counties 

Industrial  subjects  are  disputing  place  with  academic 
=  even  in  the  rural  school.  What  shall  be  eliminated?  What 
^  shall  be  taught?  How?  With  what  result? 

Rural  Education  Tells  What  to  Teach 

Aside  from  the  excellent  arrangement  of  the  program  of 
H      academic  subjects  and   the  full  treatment  of   methods  for 
teaching  the  same,  Rural  Education  presents  practical  plans 
for  including  the  required  industrial  work,  viz:  agriculture, 
H      manual  training  and  domestic  science.     In  addition  it  fully      ^ 
discusses  the  outside  activities  which  enlarge  the  scope  of  the 
school  and  the  community  life  and  form  a  vital  part  of  real 
rural  education. 

Rural  Education  Tells  How  to  Teach 

The  co-ordination  and  arrangement  of  all  these  con- 
=  flicting  courses  is  a  problem  which  this  book  solves  with 
M  satisfaction  and  success.  Complete  instruction  is  given  for  f| 

the  carrying  out  of  the  plans  suggested  and  for  the  teaching 
=  of  each  subject  in  detail.  In  the  industrial  subjects  the  actual 

work  to  be  pursued  is  supplied. 

1  1 

Rural  Education  Increases  Teaching  Efficiency 

The   definite   outlines   and    methods   which   have   been      M 
thoroly  tested  and  found  to  be  most  successful,  together  with 

H      the  enlarged  outlook  and  inspiration  which  come  with  a  view 

of  new  and  greater  possibilities,  tend  to  increase  efficiency  in      ^ 

s      the  schoolroom  and  to  direct  and  elevate  all  rural  life. 

12mo.,  430  pages.     Illustrated.     Price,  $1.00  net 

WEBB  PUBLISHING  COMPANY, 

SAINT  PAUL,  MINN. 
1  1 

lllllilllllllllllW 


I  Industrial  W>rk/^  Boys  j 

A.  E.  PICKARD 


A    COMPANION   VOLUME   TO 
"INDUSTRIAL  WORK  FOR  GIRLS" 

This  volume  is  in  keeping  with  the  rapid  strides  that  are 
^j  being  made  by^industrial  education.  It  is  an  up-to-date  text 
H  for  teaching  industrial  work  tq  boys  in  rural  and  graded 

schools.  With  the  exception  of  its  companion  volume,  no 
H  other  book  is  better  designed  for  training  the  hand  as  well  as 

the  head. 


CONTENTS 


Chapter  I— Course  and  Equipment.  Purpose  of  Industrial  Work, 
Preliminary  Industrial  Work,  Second  and  Third  Division  Work. 

H         Chapter  II— General  Industrial  Work.     School  Exercises  in  Weav- 

==  ing,   Paper  Folding  and  Construction,    Raffia  and  Rattan  Work, 

Modeling. 

Chapter  III— 'Rope  Work  and  Belt  Lacing.  Whipping,  Crowning, 
Splicing,  Making  Knots,  Rope  Halters,  Block  and  Tackle  Reev- 
ing, Lacing  Three-inch  and  Six-inch  Belts. 

=  Chapter  IV— Woodwork  at  School.  Equipment,  Thirty-two  Man- 
ual Training  Exercises. 

Chapter  V^Home  Projects  in  Woodwork.  Equipment,  Nineteen 
Home  Credit  Projects,  including  the  Making  of  a  Work  Bench, 

=  Folding  Ironing  Table,  Stepladder,  Chicken  Coop,  Stock  Rack, 

Wagon  Box,  Farm  Gate  and  Road  Drag. 
Chapter  VI— Projects  in    Cement   and   Iron.        Making    Concrete 

=  Walks,  Floors,  Posts  and  Building  Blocks,  Iron  Work. 

=  Chapter  VII— Home  Credit  Work  in  Agriculture.  Soil  Study,  Ro- 
tation of  Crops,  Germination  Tests,  Garden  Work,  Weed  Col- 
lection, Insect  Collection,  Collection  of  Woods,  Study  of  Birds 
and  Rodents,  Study  of  Machinery,  Stock  and  Grain  Judging, 
Tree  Grafting,  Strawberry  Raising. 

H        Chapter  VIII — Contests  and  Club    Work.      Acre-yield   Corn    Plot, 

=  Potato  Yield  Contest,  Tomato  Contest,  Home  Canning,  Poultry 

=  Contest,    Pig  Contest,    Savings  Banks,    Keeping  Accounts,    In- 

=  dustrial  Exhibit. 

J  The   book   contains   over   100   illustrations,  most   of   which 

H  are   working   drawings   for   the    projects   suggested.     These 

H  diagrams  alone  are  worth  in  school  or  at  home  many  times 

H  the  price  of  the  book. 

12mo.,  about  150  pages.     Illustrated.     Price,  40  cents  net 

WEBB  PUBLISHING  COMPANY, 

SAINT  PAUL.   MINN. 


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UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


